FLUID MECHANICS FOR CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING

Chapter 1: Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Properties

SEQUENCE OF CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Objectives

1.1 Definition of A Fluid

Shear stress in moving fluid
Differences between liquid and gases
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
1.2 Engineering Units
1.3 Fluid Properties
Vapor Pressure
Engineering significance of vapor pressure
Surface Tension
Capillarity
Example 1.2
Example 1.3

Summary
 Introduction
• Fluid mechanics is a study of the behavior of fluids, either at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics).

• The analysis is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics, which relate continuity of mass and energy
with force and momentum.

• An understanding of the properties and behavior of fluids at rest and in motion is of great importance in
engineering.

Dinámica Estatica
Objectives
• Identify the units for the basic quantities of time, length, force and mass.

• Properly set up equations to ensure consistency of units.

• Define the basic fluid properties.

• Identify the relationships between specific weight, specific gravity and

density, and solve problems using their relationships.
1.1 Definition of Fluid
• Fluid mechanics is a division in applied mechanics related to the behaviour of liquid or
gas which is either in rest or in motion.

• The study related to a fluid in rest or stationary is referred to fluid static, otherwise
it is referred to as fluid dynamic.

• Fluid can be defined as a substance which can deform continuously when being
subjected to shear stress at any magnitude. In other words, it can flow
continuously as a result of shearing action. This includes any liquid or gas.
 1.1 Definition of Fluid
 A fluid is a substance, which deforms continuously, or flows, when subjected to
shearing force

 In fact if a shear stress is acting on a fluid it will flow and if a fluid is at rest there
is no shear stress acting on it.

Fluid Flow Shear stress – Yes

Fluid Rest Shear stress – No
1.1 Definition of Fluid

• Thus, with exception to solids, any other matters can be

categorised as fluid. In microscopic point of view, this
concept corresponds to loose or very loose bonding between
molecules of liquid or gas, respectively.

• Examples of typical fluid used in engineering applications are

water, oil and air.
 1.1 Fluid Concept
 In fluid, the molecules can move freely but are constrained through a
traction force called cohesion. This force is interchangeable from one
molecule to another.

 For gases, it is very weak which enables the gas to disintegrate and move
away from its container.

 For liquids, it is stronger which is sufficient enough to hold the molecule

together and can withstand high compression, which is suitable for
application as hydraulic fluid such as oil. On the surface, the cohesion
forms a resultant force directed into the liquid region and the
combination of cohesion forces between adjacent molecules from a
tensioned membrane known as free surface.
1.1 Definition of Fluid

Free surface

k k

(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas

Figure 1.1 Comparison Between Solids, Liquids and Gases

• For solid, imagine that the molecules can be fictitiously

linked to each other with springs.
 Shear stress in moving fluid

• If fluid is in motion, shear stress are developed if the particles of the fluid
move relative to each other. Adjacent particles have different velocities,
causing the shape of the fluid to become distorted

• On the other hand, the velocity of the fluid is the same at every point, no
shear stress will be produced, the fluid particles are at rest relative to

each other.

Moving plate Shear force

Fluid particles New particle position

Fixed surface
 Differences between liquid and gases

Liquid Gases

Difficult to compress and often regarded as Easily to compress – changes of volume is large,
incompressible cannot normally be neglected and are related to
temperature

Occupies a fixed volume and will take the No fixed volume, it changes volume to expand to fill
shape of the container the containing vessels

A free surface is formed if the volume of Completely fill the vessel so that no free surface is
container is greater than the liquid. formed.
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid

obey refer
Newton’s law of viscosity
Fluid Newtonian fluids

Newton’s’ law of viscosity is given by;

Example:
Air
du
 (1.1)
Water
Oil
dy Gasoline
Alcohol
Kerosene
 = shear stress Benzene
 = viscosity of fluid Glycerine
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient

• The viscosity  is a function only of the condition of the fluid, particularly its
temperature.
• The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on the magnitude of .
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
Do not obey
Fluid Newton’s law of viscosity Non- Newtonian fluids

• The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent on the velocity gradient

as well as the condition of the fluid.

Newtonian Fluids
 a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate of shear),
 the slope is constant
 the viscosity is constant
non-Newtonian fluids
 slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies
 Figure 1.1. Shear stress vs.
velocity gradient

Bingham plastic : resist a small shear stress but flow easily under large shear stresses,
e.g. sewage sludge (fango de aguas residuales), toothpaste, and jellies
(jaleas).
Pseudo plastic : most non-Newtonian fluids fall under this group. Viscosity decreases
with increasing velocity gradient, e.g. colloidal substances like clay,
milk, and cement.
Dilatants : viscosity decreases with increasing velocity gradient, e.g. quicksand
(arena movidiza).
1.2 Units and Dimensions
• The primary quantities which are also referred to as basic dimensions,
such as L for length, T for time, M for mass and Q for temperature.

• This dimension system is known as the MLT system where it can be used to
provide qualitative description for secondary quantities, or derived
dimensions, such as area (L), velocity (LT-1) and density (ML-3).

• In some countries, the FLT system is also used, where the quantity F
stands for force.
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Sistema de Unidades
Existe tres sistemas de unidades principales empleadas en ingeniería y ciencia: SI, Inglés y CGS.
En la actualidad se ha adoptado el SI para utilizar exclusivamente en ingeniería y ciencias

Los sistemas de unidades están basados en ciertas dimensiones básicas, o primarias, a partir
de los cuales es posible definir cualquier otra utilizando para ello leyes físicas,
dimensionalmente homogéneas que las relaciona.

Las dimensiones fundamentales (primarias) más importantes en el SI son:

DIMENSIONES UNIDADES EN SI

Longitud metro
Tiempo segundo
Masa kg
Temperatura K
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Dimensiones Secundarias

Son las unidades que se derivan de las unidades fundamentales, así la unidad
básica de fuerza es newton (N), que se define como:
1N = 1 kg-m/s
La unidad básica de trabajo, energía o calor es el newton-metro, o Joule (J)
1 Joule (J) = 1 Newton – metro (N – m) = 1 kg m2/s2
Potencia es medido J/s o watts (w)
1 Joule/s (J/s) = 1 watt (w)
La unidad de presión es el N/m2 o Pascal (Pa)
1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)
[Presión en atmósfera (atm) no es unidad en SI, pero está siendo usado durante el
período de transición].
La aceleración estándar de gravedad es definido como:
1 g = 9,80665 m/s2
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 1.2 Units and Dimensions
• An example is a kinematic equation for the velocity V of a
uniformly accelerated body,

V = V0 + at

where
V0 = is the initial velocity,
a = the acceleration and
t = the time interval. In terms for dimensions of the equation,
we can expand that

LT-1 = LT -1 + LT-2 • T
Example

 The free vibration of a particle can be simulated by the

following differential equation:

du
m  kx  0
dt

where m is mass, u is velocity, t is time and x is

displacement. Determine the dimension for the stiffness
variable k.
Example

 By making the dimension of the first term equal to the second

term:

[u]
[m] • = [k]•[x]
[t]

Hence,

[m]•[u] M • LT-1
[k] = =
[t]•[x] LT

= MT-2
1.2 Engineering Units

Primary Units
Quantity SI Unit

Length Metre, m

Mass Kilogram, kg

Time Seconds, s

Temperature Kelvin, K

Current Ampere, A

Luminosity Candela

In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table.
Derived Units
Quantity SI Unit
velocity m/s -

acceleration m/s2 -

force Newton (N) N = kg.m/s2

energy (or work) Joule (J) J = N.m = kg.m2/s2

power Watt (W) W = N.m/s = kg.m2/s3

pressure (or stress) Pascal (P) P = N/m2 = kg/m/s2

density kg/m3 -

specific weight N/m3 = kg/m2/s2 N/m3 = kg/m2/s2

relative density a ratio (no units) dimensionless

viscosity N.s/m2 N.s/m2 = kg/m/s

surface tension N/m N/m = kg/s2

Unit Cancellation Procedure
1. Solve the equation algebraically for the desired terms.
2. Decide on the proper units of the result.
3. Substitute known values, including units.
4. Cancel units that appear in both the numerator and
denominator of any term.
5. Use correct conversion factors to eliminate unwanted units
and obtain the proper units as described in Step 2.
6. Perform the calculations.
Example

Given m = 80 kg and a=10 m/s2. Find the force

Solution
 F = ma
 F = 80 kg x 10 m/s2 = 800 kg.m/s2
 F= 800N
1.3 Fluid Properties

Density

Density of a fluid, ,
Definition: mass per unit volume,

• slightly affected by changes in temperature and pressure.

 = mass/volume = m/ (1.2)

Units: kg/m3

Typical values:
Water = 1000 kg/m3; ir = 1.23 kg/m3
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 Fluid Properties (Continue)
Specific weight

Specific weight of a fluid, 

• Definition: weight of the fluid per unit volume

• Arising from the existence of a gravitational force
• The relationship  and g can be found using the following:

Since  = m/
therefore  = g (1.3)
Units: N/m3
Typical values:

Water = 9814 N/m3; Air = 12.07 N/m3

Fluid Properties (Continue)

Specific gravity
The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined in two ways:

Definition 1: A ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at

standard temperature (4C) and atmospheric pressure, or

Definition 2: A ratio of the specific weight of a substance to the specific weight of

water at standard temperature (4C) and atmospheric pressure.

s s
SG   (1.4)
w @ 4C  w @ 4C

Unit: dimensionless.
Example

A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The reservoir has a volume of
0.917 m3. Compute the density, specific weight, and specific gravity of
the oil.

Solution:

mass m 825
 oil     900kg / m3
volume  0.917
weight mg
 oil    g  900 x 9.81  8829 N / m 3
volume 
 oil 900
SGoil    0.9
 w@ STP 998
Fluid Properties (Continue)

Viscosity
• Viscosity, , is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between
molecules, which offers resistance to shear deformation.

• Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress. The ease
with which a fluid pours is an indication of its viscosity. Fluid with a high viscosity
such as syrup deforms more slowly than fluid with a low viscosity such as water. The
viscosity is also known as dynamic viscosity.

Units: N.s/m2 or kg/m/s

Typical values: Water = 1.14x10-3 kg/m/s; Air = 1.78x10-5 kg/m/s

Kinematic viscosity, 

Definition: is the ratio of the viscosity to the density;

  /
• will be found to be important in cases in which significant viscous and gravitational
forces exist.

Units: m2/s

Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-6 m2/s; Air = 1.46x10-5 m2/s;
In general,

viscosity of liquids with temperature, whereas

Viscosity of gases with in temperature.

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 Determinación experimental de viscosidad
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Viscosidad de tubo capilar L

p1  p 2 v 
p1  p 2  / LD 2 (1) (2)

 32 2 32v
L D D v
Cuando la caída de presión se mide con manumetro en U
p1 – p2 = h g [m - f]
h
 Δh  2
 L g  ρ m - ρ f   D  i  g (ρm - ρf ) D
μ =  
2

μ = v 32
32 v

Cuando la caída de presión se mide con tubos piezométricos p1 – p2 = h g []

 i  gD
2
 
 v  32
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m a = F
D
m (dv/dt) = Fg – Fb – FD

FD FB 0 = Fg – Fb – FD
(fuerza de (fuerza de
arrastre ) flotación) Fuerza de gravedad:
Fg = m g = ρ p Vp g
Fg
( fuerza de Fuerza de flotación:
gravedad )
ρf ρ 
FB = m g =  ρ p Vp   f  g = Vp ρ f g
ρp ρ
 p 

Coeficiente de arrastre, CD
Fuerza de arrastres:
 v2  A = (/4) D2
 vD FD = CD   ρf A
CD  f (Re) , Re  f  2
f
Reemplazando los respectivos valores de las fuerzas
Región laminar, Re < 1,0 (ley de Stokes)
ρ p Vp g - Vp ρf g - 3 π μ f D v = 0
24 24 24 f
CD   
Re f v D f v D π
Vp g ρ p - ρ f  = 3 π μ f D v , Vp = D 3
f 6
 24 μ f  v 2 π 2 g ρ p - ρf  D2
FD    ρ f D = 3π μ f D v μf =
 ρ f Vp D  2 4 18 v
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Viscosímetro capilar de vidrio o viscosímetro de Cannon Fenske

Consiste en la medición de tiempo de escurrimiento de

un fluido problema a través de un tubo capilar de vidrio
entre dos secciones señaladas. La relación para
calcular la viscosidad teniendo en cuenta datos de
referencia de un fluido conocido viene expresada
como:

1 1t1  1   t1 
  1  2   
 2  2t2 
 2   t2 
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la viscosidad con viscosímetros rotacionales
En este tipo de instrumentos el liquido en estudio se sitúa entre dos superficies sólidas, una de las cuales permanece
estacionaria mientras la otra gira a una determinada velocidad por aplicación de un par de torsión. Las medidas se llevan a
cabo variando el par aplicado (T) y registrando la velocidad de giro de la superficie sólida ( Ω ) o viceversa, (para mayor detalle
referirse al libro de Bird, R. B; Stewart, W. E.; Lightfoot, E. N., “Transport Phenomena”). La siguiente figura muestra un
viscosímetro rotacional de cilindros concéntricos, con rotación del cilindro interior.

Viscosímetro de espacio estrecho: espesor muy pequeño [(Ro – Ri )/Ri < 0,10 ],

v dv
     
r dr


τ  vo - vi    [0   Ri]  
 
= -
μ  Ro - Ri   Ro  Ri  Ro Ri  1



Ro  1
Ri 
Por aplicación de las ecuaciones anteriores a los datos
experimentales obtenidos en el viscosímetro se llega a una tabla
de valores    que, representada gráficamente y por
comparación con las curvas reológicas de fluidos
independientes del tiempo, permite determinar el
comportamiento reológico del fluid. A su vez, el ajuste de estos
datos a la ecuación reológica correspondiente permite la
estimación de los parámetros que aparecen en la misma.
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Viscosímetro de espacio ancho: [(Ro – Ri )/Ri > 0,10 ]

Fluidos newtonianos.
T

2  r2L

 dv   d 
     r 
 dr   dr 

 d  T
  r  
 dr  2 r 2 L

 T  dr
d     3
 2  L  r

 T  1 1 
     ,    mT
 4  L   Ri
2
Ro2 
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En forma análoga se hace el tratamiento matemático, pero esta vez se sustituye la ley de viscosidad de Newton por la ley
de potencia, y se llega a la siguiente ecuación: 1/ n
n  T   1 1 
  1/ n  2 L   Ri 2 / n 
2k   Ro 2 / n 

Linearizando [ln(y) = a + m ln(x)], de forma que a partir de la ordenada en el origen y la pendiente de la representación
grafica ln( Ω ) – ln( T ) se puede obtener los valores de los parámetros reológicos de este tipo de fluidos, k y n.


 n  1 
1/ n
 1 1   1 Fluidos plásticos de Bingham. En este caso, la ecuación que
ln     ln  1/ n  2 L   Ri 2/ n  2/ n  
   ln T  relaciona la velocidad de giro con el par de torsión depende de si
 2k   Ro   n la tensión tangencial aplicada sobrepasa la de fluencia o no en todo
  el espesor de fluidos:

 T  1 1    Ro 
    c ln 
 
 4 L    Ri
2 2
Ro    Ri 

T
si  c 
2 Ri 2 L

 T  1 2 L  c    T 
       c ln  2 
 4 L    Ri T  2  2 L  c Ri 
2

T T
si  c 
2 Ro L
2
2 Ri 2 L
Vapor Pressure
 A liquid in a closed container is subjected to a partial vapor pressure in the space above the liquid
due to the escaping molecules from the surface;

 It reaches a stage of equilibrium when this pressure reaches saturated vapor pressure.

 Since this depends upon molecular

activity, which is a function of
temperature, the vapor pressure of a
fluid also depends on its temperature
and increases with it.

 If the pressure above a liquid

reaches the vapor pressure of the
liquid, boiling occurs; for example
if the pressure is reduced sufficiently
boiling may occur at room
temperature.
Engineering significance of vapor pressure
 In a closed hydraulic system, Ex. in pipelines or pumps, water vaporizes rapidly in regions where the pressure drops
below the vapor pressure.
 There will be local boiling and a cloud of vapor bubbles will form.
 This phenomenon is known as cavitations, and can cause serious problems, since the flow of fluid can sweep this
cloud of bubbles on into an area of higher pressure where the bubbles will collapse suddenly.
 If this should occur in contact with a solid surface, very serious damage can result due to the very large force with
which the liquid hits the surface.
 Cavitations can affect the performance of hydraulic machinery such as pumps, turbines and propellers, and the
impact of collapsing bubbles can cause local erosion of metal surface.
 Cavitations in a closed hydraulic system can be avoided by maintaining the pressure above the vapor pressure
everywhere in the system.
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 Surface Tension
 Liquids possess the properties of cohesion and adhesion due to molecular attraction.

 Due to the property of cohesion, liquids can resist small tensile forces at the interface between the liquid and
air, known as surface tension, .

 Surface tension is defined as force per unit length, and its unit is N/m.

 The reason for the existence of this force arises from intermolecular attraction. In the body of the liquid (Fig.
1.2a), a molecule is surrounded by other molecules and intermolecular forces are symmetrical and in
equilibrium.

 At the surface of the liquid (Fig. 1.2b), a molecule has this force acting only through 180.

 This imbalance forces means that the molecules at the surface tend to be drawn together, and they act rather like
a very thin membrane under tension.

 This causes a slight deformation at the surface of the liquid (the meniscus effect).

Figure 1.2: Surface

Tension
 A steel needle floating on water, the spherical shape of dewdrops, and the rise or fall of liquid in capillary
tubes is the results of the surface tension.

 Surface tension is usually very small compared with other forces in fluid flows (e.g. surface tension for water
at 20C is 0.0728 N/m).

 Surface tension,, increases the pressure within a droplet of liquid. The internal pressure, P, balancing the
surface tensional force of a spherical droplet of radius r, is given by

2R = pR2
2
P
r
Capillarity
• The surface tension leads to the phenomenon known as capillarity
• where a column of liquid in a tube is supported in the absence of an
externally applied pressure.
• Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the
adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessels.
• Liquid rise in tubes if they wet a surface (adhesion > cohesion), such as
water, and fall in tubes that do not wet (cohesion > adhesion), such as
mercury.
• Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than 10 mm (3/8 in.).
• For tube larger than 12 mm (1/2 in.) capillarity effects are negligible.
 Figure 1.3 Capillary actions

2 cos 
h (1.8)
r
where h = height of capillary rise (or depression)
 = surface tension
 = wetting (contact) angle
 = specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube
Example
A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The reservoir has a volume of 0.917
m3. Compute the density, specific weight, and specific gravity of the oil.

Solution: mass m 825

 oil     900kg / m3
volume  0.917

weight mg
 oil    g  900 x 9.81  8829 N / m 3
volume 

 oil 900
SG oil    0.9
 w @ 4 C 1000
Example

Water has a surface tension of 0.4 N/m. In a 3-mm diameter vertical tube,
if the liquid rises 6 mm above the liquid outside the tube, calculate the
wetting angle.
Solution
Capillary rise due to surface tension is given by;

2 cos 
h
r
rh 9810x 0.0015x 0.006
 cos   
2 2 x 0.4

 = 83.7
Problema 1.
Pregunta 1. La información de una lata de refresco gaseoso muestra que la lata contiene
355 ml. La lata complemente llena de refresco gaseoso es 0.369 kg, mientras que lata
vacía pesa 0.153 N. Determine: a) el peso específico, b) la densidad, y c) la densidad
relativa del refresco gaseoso y compara sus resultados con los valores correspondientes
para agua el agua a 20 oC. Exprese sus resultados en unidades del SI.
Para agua a 20 oC (Tablas)
Summary

This chapter has summarized on the aspect below:

 Understanding of a fluid
 The differences between the behaviours of liquid and gases
 Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid were identified
 Engineering unit of SI unit were discussed
 Fluid properties of density, specific weight, specific gravity and
viscosity were outlined and taken up.
 Discussion on the vapor pressure of the liquid
 Surface tension
 Capillarity phenomena
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies

SEMINARIO

Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia 65

Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies

Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia 66