Leadership & Organizational Change

Chapter 10
Leadership & Organizational

Change
Motivation
 Motivation
 inner force that activates or moves a person
toward achievement of a goal.
Needs →Drives or motivates →Achievement of goals
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Spears & Gregoire
Motivation
 Physical needs
 innate or primary needs (food, water,
shelter).
 Psychological needs
 acquired needs, those we learn in response
to culture or environment (esteem, affection,
power).

Motivation
 Positive goal
 desirable & the object of directed behavior.
 Negative goal
 undesirable & behavior is directed away
from it.
 Both needs & goals are interdependent.
 Needs & goals are constantly changing.

Motivation & Work Performance
 Individuals who are blocked in attempts to
satisfy their needs may exhibit:
 Withdrawal
 Aggression
 Substitution
 Compensation
 Revert or regress
 Repression
 Projection
 Rationalization

Theories of Motivation
 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

 McClelland’s Achievement-Power-
Affiliation Theory
 Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory
 Expectancy Theory
 Reinforcement Theory

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
 People are motivated by their desire to satisfy

specific needs:
 Physiological – needs of the body to sustain life.
 Safety – protection of individuals from physical or
psychological harm.
 Social – needs for love, affection, belonging.
 Esteem – feelings of self-respect & self-worth.
 Self-actualization – desire to fulfill one’s potential.
 Prepotent need – a need that is dominant over
all others.

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

McClelland’s Achievement-Power-
Affiliation Theory
 All people have a need:
 to achieve
 for power
 for affiliation
 Achievement – desire to do something better
or more efficiently than it was done before.
 Power – a concern for influencing people.
 Affiliation – desire to be liked by others & to
establish or maintain friendly relationships.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 Motivators
 Factors for job satisfaction
 Related to content of the job
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Responsibility
 Advancement
 The work itself
 Potential for growth

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 Increase in Motivators can be used to

increase job satisfaction
 Absence of Maintenance or Hygiene
factors will cause job dissatisfaction
 Increase in Maintenance or Hygiene
factors will not increase job satisfaction

Expectancy Theory
 Explains behavior in terms of an individual’s

goals, choices, & expectations of achieving
these goals.
 Assumes people can:
 Determine the outcomes they prefer.
 Make realistic estimates of their chances.
 People are motivated to work:
 If they believe their efforts will be rewarded.
 If they value the rewards that are offered (valence).

Reinforcement Theory
 Associated with work by Skinner

 Also called operant conditioning or
behavior modification.
 Consequences of past actions influence
future actions in a cyclical learning
process.
 Reinforced behavior will be repeated;
behavior that is not reinforced is less
likely to be repeated.
Job Satisfaction
 An individual’s feelings & beliefs about

their job.
 Components of job satisfaction:
 Personality
 Values
 Work situation
 Social influence

Job Satisfaction
 Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCB)
 Positive, voluntary, behaviors that enhance
organizational efficiency.
 Affective Organizational Commitment
 commitment to an organization because one is
happy to be working for the organization, believes in
the organization, & wants to do what is best for the
organization.
 Continuous Organizational Commitment
 commitment to an organization only because the
cost of leaving is too great.

Leadership
 Process of influencing activities of an

individual or group toward achieving
organizational goals.
 Effective leader can influence people to
strive willingly for group objectives.

Traditional Power Structure
 Power
 means by which a leader influences the
behaviors of followers.
 Position power
 derived from position in an organization.
 Personal power
 comes from personal attributes & expertise.

Bases of Power
 Legitimate
 comes from formal position in organization
 Reward
 comes from leader’s ability to reward others
 Coercive
 comes from leader’s authority to punish those who
do not comply
 Expert
 held by leaders who are viewed as being
competent in their job

Bases of Power
 Referent
 based on identification of followers with a leader
 Information
 based on leader’s possession of or access to
information that others perceive as valuable.
 Connection
 based on the leader’s connections with influential or
important persons.

Evolving Power Structure
 Title & rank will be less important factors

in success.
 More important will be knowledge, skills,
and sensitivity to mobilize people and
motivate them to do their best.

Philosophies of Human Nature
McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y

 Theory X
 Work distasteful to people
 People are not ambitious
 People have little capacity for creativity
 Most people must be closely controlled
 People must be coerced to achieve

objectives

McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y

 Theory Y
 Work is natural as play
 People are self motivated
 Creativity is common among people
 Motivation at esteem and self actualization

levels

Argyris’s Immaturity-Maturity Theory

Immaturity Maturity
Passive Increased activity
Dependence Independence
Behave in few ways Behave in many ways
Shallow interests Deep, strong interests
Short time perspective Long time perspective
Lack of self control Control over self

Leadership Effectiveness
 Effective leaders influence others.

 Formal leaders – formal authority to
exert influence on others.
 Informal leaders – may have no formal
job authority, yet may exert considerable
influence because of special skills or
talents.

Trait Concepts in Leadership
 Characteristics for effective leaders:

 Character  Passion
 Charisma  Positive attitude
 Commitment  Problem solving
 Communication  Relationships
 Competence  Responsibility
 Courage  Security
 Discernment  Self-discipline
 Focus  Servanthood
 Generosity  Teachability
 Initiative  Vision
 Listening
Trait Concepts in Leadership
 Strongest leadership relationship traits:

 Intelligence
 Task-relevant knowledge
 Dominance
 Self-confidence
 Energy/activity level
 Tolerance for stress
 Integrity & honesty
 Emotional maturity

Basic Leadership Styles
 Basic styles:
 Autocratic – makes most decisions.
 Laissez-faire – allows the group to make the
decisions.
 Democratic – guides & encourages the
group to make decisions.
 Different leadership styles are effective
in different situations.

University of Michigan Leadership
Studies
 Designed to characterize leadership
effectiveness.
 Major concepts of leadership:
 Employee orientation – emphasis on the
human relations part of their job.
 Product orientation – emphasis on
performance & the more technical
characteristics of work.

Studies
 High-production supervisor traits:
 Receive general rather than close
supervision from their superiors
 Spend more time in supervision
 Give general rather than close supervision

of their employees
 Are employee oriented rather than
production oriented.

Studies
 Management styles:
 Exploitive autocratic – employees motivated by
fear, threats, & punishment.
 Benevolent autocratic - employees make certain
minor decisions, & upward communication is
generally ignored.
 Consultative – information flows up & down, but all
major decisions come from the top.
 Participative - operates on the basis of trust &
responsibility.

Ohio State Leadership Studies
 Dimensions of leadership behavior:

 Consideration – behavior that:
 Expresses friendship
 Develops mutual trust & respect
 Develops strong interpersonal relationships with
subordinates
 Initiating structure – behavior that defines work &
establishes well-defined communication patterns &
clear relationships between the leader &
subordinate.

Ohio State Leadership Studies

Leadership Grid

Situational & Contingency
Approaches
 Emphasizes leadership skills, behavior,
& roles dependent on the situation.
 Behavior of effective leaders in one
setting may be substantially different
from that in another.

Leadership Continuum
 Forces affecting appropriate leadership:

 Forces in the manager
 Forces in subordinates or nonmanagers
 Forces in the situation
 Forces differ in strength & interaction in

different situations.
 Manager employs a variety of
approaches, which are dependent on the
forces operating in a particular situation.
Leadership Continuum
 Encourages participative approaches to

decision making.
 Benefits of participative styles:
 Raise employees’ motivational level
 Increase willingness to change
 Improve quality of decisions
 Develop teamwork & morale
 Further the individual development of
employees

Contingency Approach
 Major situational variables:

 Leader-member relations – personal relations with
member of the group.
 Task structure- degree of structure in the task
assigned to the group.
 Position power – authority & power a leader’s
position provides.
 Favorableness of a situation – degree to which
the situation enables the leader to exert
influence over the group.
Leader Effectiveness Model
 Task behavior – the extent to which the
leader engages in spelling out the duties &
responsibilities of an individual or group.
 Relationship behavior – the extent to which
the leader engages in two-way or multi-way
communication.
 Readiness – desire for achievement based
on:
 Challenging but attainable goals
 Willingness & ability to accept responsibility
 Education or experience & skills relevant to a
particular task
Path-Goal Leadership Model
 Focuses on the leader’s effect on the

subordinate’s motivation to perform.
 Assumes that individuals react rationally
in pursuing certain goals because those
goals ultimately result in highly valued
payoffs to the individual.

 Types of leadership behavior:

 Directive – provides guidelines, setting definite
performance standards, & controlling behavior to
ensure adherence to rules.
 Supportive – being friendly & showing concern for
subordinates’ well-being & needs.
 Achievement oriented – setting challenging goals
& seeking to improve performance.
 Participative – sharing information, consulting with
employees, & emphasizing group decision making.

 Situational factors:
 Locus of control – tendency of people to rely
on internal or external sources.
 Characteristics of the work environment –
structure & complexity of the task.

Transformational Leadership
 Inspires followers to become motivated

to work toward organizational rather than
personal gain.
 Occurs when followers:
 Trust the leader
 Perform behaviors that contribute to the
achievement of organizational goals
 Perform at a high level

Transactional Leadership
 Focuses on clarifying roles and

responsibilities
 Uses rewards and punishment to
achieve goals

Transformational Leadership

Emerging Leadership Competencies
 Emotional intelligence
 extent to which a person is in tune with their
own feelings & the feelings of others.
 Social intelligence
 ability to determine the requirements for
leadership in a particular situation & select
the appropriate response.
 Metacognition
 ability to learn & adapt to change.

Implications of Leadership Theories
 Successful leaders have either:

 Analyzed situational factors & adapted their
leadership style to them.
 Altered the factors to match their style.
 No one best style of leadership exists.

 Leadership is a function of forces in the
leader, the followers, & the situation.

 Effective leaders:
 Develop & provide a complete vision
 Earn & return trust
 Listen & communicate effectively
 Persevere when others give up

 Keys to effective leadership:

 Develop a vision
 Trust your subordinates
 Encourage risk
 Simplify
 Keep your cool
 Invite dissent

Comparison of Management &
Leadership
 Management:
 About coping with complexities.
 Organizes & staffs people to achieve goals.
 Controls people by pushing them in the right
direction.
 Leadership:
 About coping with change.
 Focuses on aligning people toward goals.
 Motivates people by satisfying basic human needs.

Comparison of Management &
Leadership
 Managers are appointed to their position.
 Leaders may be appointed, or they may
emerge from the group.
 Leaders are able to influence without
having formal authority.

Personal & Organizational Change
 Change
 the movement from one state to another.
 Effective managers & leaders accept that
chance should & will occur.

Personal Change
 Examination of one’s personal

characteristics
 Development and execution of plans to
change one or more of those
characteristics

Personal Change
 Covey’s Seven Habits

 Be proactive
 Begin with the end in mind
 Put first things first
 Think win/win
 Seek first to understand…then to be
understood
 Synergize
 Sharpen the saw

Organizational Change
 Substantive modification to some part of the
organization
 Forces include:
 Competition
 Governmental laws & regulations
 Economic & political pressures
 Technology
 Employee attitudes
 Workforce demographics
 Introduction of new equipment

Organizational Change
 Change Agent
 person who initiates change.

Successful Change Guidelines
 Who Moved My Cheese Guidelines:

 Change happens
 Anticipate change
 Monitor change
 Adapt to change quickly
 Change
 Enjoy change
 Be ready to change quickly & enjoy it again


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Chapter 10

Leadership & Organizational

Needs →Drives or motivates →Achievement of goals

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 People are motivated by their desire to satisfy

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 The work itself

 Potential for growth

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Increase in Motivators can be used to

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Explains behavior in terms of an individual’s

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Associated with work by Skinner

 An individual’s feelings & beliefs about

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Process of influencing activities of an

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Title & rank will be less important factors

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y

 People have little capacity for creativity

 Most people must be closely controlled

 People must be coerced to achieve

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y

 Creativity is common among people

 Motivation at esteem and self actualization

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

Argyris’s Immaturity-Maturity Theory

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Effective leaders influence others.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Characteristics for effective leaders:

 Strongest leadership relationship traits:

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Give general rather than close supervision

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Dimensions of leadership behavior:

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Forces affecting appropriate leadership:

 Forces differ in strength & interaction in

 Encourages participative approaches to

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

 Major situational variables:

 Focuses on the leader’s effect on the