Topic 11 - Earth Surface Process:

Mass Wasting
 What is Mass Wasting?

 Causes and Triggers of Mass Wasting

- Role of Water
- Degree of Slope
- Vegetation Cover
- Type of Clay
- Earthquakes
 Topic 11 - Earth Surface Process:
Mass Wasting
 Classification of Mass Wasting Processes:

- Types of Materials
- Types of Motions
- Rate of Motion:
=> Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting:
- Slump
- Rockslide
- Rockfall
- Debris Flow/Mudflow/Lahar
- Earthflow
 Topic 11 - Earth Surface Process:
Mass Wasting
 => Slow Movements:
- Creep (soil Creep)
- Solifluction
- Permafrost

 Mass Wasting and Landforms

 What is Mass Wasting?
 One end-product of weathering is called
regolith:

 According to Ehlen (2005),

regolith is the weathered
loose material lying above
the unaltered bedrock

 These loose materials are easier to move by

geomorphic processes or denudation agents
(i.e., mass wasting, running water, wave action,
glacier, wind and others) to produce landforms
Mass Wasting: A Major Hillslope Process
 What is Mass Wasting?
 Mass wasting, also called Mass Movement,
involves the downslope movement of loose
weathered materials (regolith) in bulk or
individually under the influence of gravity

 Though regolith wetness may increase the rate of

movement, it does not require a physical
transportation medium ( like water, glacier,
wind) to move materials

 The rate of movement may be very slow and

imperceptible to very fast moving, like during a
rock avalanche
 What is Mass Wasting?
 Some mass wasting processes (mud flow, lahar,
landslides, rock avalanche, etc.) are sources of
geologic or natural hazards

 When human settlements

are located on or near steep
hillslopes, they become
exposed to this form of
natural hazards

 Over 20 lives are lost yearly

in the 50 states of the U.S.
due to mass wasting
United States Map of Landslide Potentials
 What is Mass Wasting?
 In the United States of America, over 60% of all
mass wasting hazards occur along:
- mountainous hillsides in the Pacific Northwest
triggered by heavy rainfall or earthquakes
- over steepened coastal California cliffs
triggered by strong coastal waves
- Seattle area volcanic mudflows (Lahars)

 Fewer mass wasting hazards occur:

- in the East on Appalachian hillslopes and
- in the Central Plains on steeper river bluffs on
the Mississippi and other major river systems
 Least hazard areas occur on the plain & Florida
 What is Mass Wasting?

 The least mass wasting hazard zones in the

country occur on the low hillslopes in the:
- Central Plains
- Florida and adjacent Atlantic and Gulf
Coastal Plains.

 The global Landslides map indicates that areas

with high topographic slopes are also areas of
high mass wasting risks
Causes of Mass Wasting – Force of Gravity
 The most important driving force of mass
wasting is the force of gravity acting to pull
hillslope regolith downslope

 Total force of gravity (Fg) resolves into 2 forces:

- normal force (Fn) (resisting force or stress)
- parallel force (Fp) (shear force or stress)
Causes of Mass Wasting – Force of Gravity

 Fpis related to total force of gravity (Fg)

as follows:
Fp = Fg sinø
where Fg = weight in pounds or kilograms
ø = slope angle

 As slope angle changes, Fp will vary from

zero (stable slope) on a horizontal surface
to a maximum Fp (unstable slope) on a
vertical slope
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Force of Gravity
 However, local conditions or factors of the
hillslope may work in synergy to increase the
shear stress due to gravity

 They include the:

- removal of lateral support by human actions
- removal of underlying support by rivers
undercutting hillslope base
- loading of slope with rain water or equipment
- lateral pressure and transient stresses
 Other Factors Contributing to Increasing Shear Stress Due To
Gravity
Removal of Lateral Support Erosion by rivers & glaciers,
Through Undercutting or previous rock falls or slides,
Slope Steepening construction works
Removal of Underlying Undercutting by rivers or waves,
Support subsurface solution, loss of strength
by extrusion of underlying sediments

Loading of Slope Weight of rain water, vegetation,

accumulated debris, weight of army
tanks or construction equipment
Lateral Pressure Water in cracks, freezing in cracks,
hydration of swelling clay
Transient Stresses Earthquakes, movement of trees in
wind
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Resisting Forces
 According to Coulomb (1773), slope failure (like
mass wasting) occurs when shear stress (s) (due
to gravity) is large enough to overcome the
resisting forces of cohesion and frictional
resistance of slope materials

 Hence:
s = c + Sn tanø
Where:
s = shearing stress
c = cohesion
Sn = normal stress
ø = angle of internal friction or shearing
resistance
Causes of Mass Wasting – Resisting Forces
 Thus,the second group of causes of mass
wasting is the resisting forces aimed at
preventing slope materials to be pulled
downslope by gravity

 Theresisting forces include:

=> Normal force or stress (Fn or Sn )
=> Shear strength of slope materials
Causes of Mass Wasting – Resisting Forces
 Normal force (Fn ) is related to Fg as
follows:
Fn = Fg cosø
where Fn is an indication of frictional resistance

 Hence, Fn (frictional resistance of slope

materials) is at a maximum on a horizontal
surface (stable slope) and zero on a vertical
slope (unstable slope)
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Resisting Forces
 On the other hand, the shear strength of slope
materials are enhanced by the:

=> cohesion of slope materials by the:

- chemical bonding of rock & soil particles

- presence of cementing materials of regolith

- capillary cohesion in partially moist soils

(e.g. silt and clay soils) causes film of
water to be drawn over particles with the
resulting negative pore-water pressure
producing more adhesion
Causes of Mass Wasting – Resisting Forces
=> inherent frictional properties of
slope materials such as:
- particle size distributions, shape and
arrangement
- number of contact points
- crushing resistance
Causes of Mass Wasting – Resisting Forces

 However, local conditions and factors on

hillslopes work to reduce the resisting forces
(i.e., shear strength) of slope materials

 They include:
- weathering effects
- changes in pore-water pressure
- changes of structure
- organic effects, among others
Factors Contributing to Reduce Resisting Forces of slope
Material (Slope Strength)
Weathering Effects Disintegration of granular rocks,
hydration of clay minerals,
dissolution of cementing
minerals in rock or soil
Changes in Pore-water Saturation, softening of material
Pressure
Changes in Structure Creation of fissures in shale and
clays, remoulding of sand and
sensitive clays
Organic Effects Burrowing of animals, decay of
tree roots
Causes of Mass Wasting – Resisting Forces
 In conclusion, slope failures resulting in mass
wasting occur when the resisting forces (shear
strength) of slope materials are less than its shear
stress due to gravity

 Based on slope stability, hillslopes often exist in

one of three states:
- stable slope: shear strength > shear stress (or
safety factor > 1.3)
( i.e. shear strength divided by shear stress)

- actively unstable slope: shear strength <

shear stress (or safety factor < 1)
Causes of Mass Wasting – Resisting Forces

- conditionally stable slope: failure occurs when

shear strength changes temporarily (or safety
factor 1-1.3)

 Mass wasting tends to occur under the state of

actively unstable or conditionally stable slopes or
when safety factor is generally less than 1.3
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Trigger Factors

 Basedon field data, the four most

important triggers of mass wasting are:

- Role of water
- Degree of slope
- Type of clay
- Vegetation cover and
- Earthquakes (play different roles
in creating downslope movements)
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Trigger Factors

 Role
of Water in Mass Wasting:
- Heavy rains/rapid snow melt saturate
weathered regolith and help to trigger
mass wasting

- Saturation reduces internal resistance

of materials and making the materials
to move easily

- Water adds weight to the materials

causing it to slide or flow downslope
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Trigger Factors

 Role
of Degree of Slope:
- Over steepened slopes tend to collapse
or move easily by gravity

- Unconsolidated particles of sand or

coarser materials tend to assume a
stable slope called the angle of repose

- The angle of repose is the steepest angle

at which material remains stable
Mass Wasting: Angle of Repose of Slope
Materials
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Trigger Factors

 Roleof Degree of Slope:

- If the degree of slope is increased, the
slope materials come under increasing
force of gravity and causing slope
instability and verse versa

 Role
of Vegetal Cover:
- Plant roots hold the soil in place

- They protect soil against erosion and

contribute to slope stability
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Trigger Factors

- When anchoring vegetation is removed

by forest fire or farming or
construction work, surface materials
frequently move downslope, especially
in semi-arid areas

 Role
of Earthquakes:
- earthquake and its after-shocks can
dislodge enormous volume of rock and
debris and important in sudden release
of rocks to cause rock avalanche
 Causes of Mass Wasting – Trigger Factors

- Massive slide can be triggered by

earthquakes

- Earthquake could cause liquefaction of

sand with some water
 Main Types of Mass Wasting
 Several methods of mass wasting classification.
The simplest is based on rate of movement that
groups mass wasting into two, Slow - Moderate and
Rapid Mass Wasting and further subdivided based
of type of movement:
 Slow/Moderate Mass Wasting:
- Creep
- Solifluction
- Rotational Slides or Slump (Moderate)
 Rapid Mass Movement:
- Falls or Avalanche
- Slides
- Flows
 Main Types of Mass Wasting
 A three dimensional grouping, by adding type of
material moved, yields a larger list of mass wasting

 Thus, a list including three factors, (i) rate of

movement, (ii) type of movement and (iii) type of
materials moved, looks like the following:
=> Slow/Moderate Mass Wasting:
- Creeps:
• Soil creep
• Earth Creep
• Talus Creep
- Solufluction
- Rotational Slide (Slump) (moderate rate)
 Main Types of Mass Wasting
=> Rapid Mass Wasting:
- Falls:
• Rockfalls
• Debris fall
• Rock avalanche and
• Debris Avalanche:
- Slides:
• Debris Slides
• Rockslides
• Rotational Slides or Slump
- Flows:
• Earthflows
• Debris Flow or Mudflows or Lahar
 Types of Mass Wasting Based on
Rate of Movement and Amount of Water
 Slow-Moderate Mass Wasting
 Slow
- Moderate Mass Movement:
- Creep
- Solifluction
- Rotational Slides or Slump (Moderate)
SLOW/MODERATE
MASS WASTING
PROCESSES
- Creep
- Solifluction
- Slump
 Slow Mass Movement: Creep
 Itis a slow imperceptible downhill
movement that includes:
- soil creep (Heave)(finer materials)
- rock creep
- talus creep (coarser materials)

 movement consists of numerous minute

discrete movements of slope materials
under the influence of gravity
 Slow Mass Movement: Creep
 rate
of movement is slow (0.1 mm to 10
m/yr) depending on:
- slope angle
- susceptibility of the materials
- intensity of the processes
- water content

 movement may extend up to about 20 cm

below the surface but rate of movement
decreases with depth
 Slow Mass Movement: Creep
 movement is aided by heaving of the ground
(expansion and contraction) caused by:
- freezing and thawing
- wetting and drying
- or, other volumetric
changes

 mechanisms of soil creep include:

- differential expansion-contraction
- displacement of particles by organisms
- downhill release of particles by weathering
Mass Wasting in Cold Climate: Soil Creep
 Slow Mass Movement: Creep
 Evidences of creep include:
- tilting of surface objects like fence
posts, tombstones, retaining walls
- curvature of trees and
- bending of rock strata downslope
- formation of terracettes (i.e., step-like
ridges along the hillside
Effects of Soil Creep
Soil Creep Effect: Curvature of Tree Trunk
Soil Creep Effect: Curvature of Tree Trunk Base
Soil Creep Effect: Curvature of Tree Trunk
Soil Creep Effect: Tilting Fencepost
Nearly Vertical Sedimentary Strata Bent in
Downslope Direction
 Slow Mass Movement: Solifluction
 Solifluctionis a type of earth flow found in
periglacial regions underlain by
permafrost

During the summer the surface layer of

permafrost melts creating a water-
saturated layer that becomes mobile

 The underlying frozen ground acts as a

sliding plane along which the mass of soil
can slowly move down slope over
 Slow Mass Movement: Solifluction
 Itmoves as imbricate tongues, lobes or
sheets

 Movement is most rapid in the center and

slower near the lateral margins

 It moves at a rate of about 1-10 cm/week

 In the Yukon Plateau, it is as a major

gradation process called equiplanation
Slow Mass Movement: Solifluction
 According to Eakin(1916), Russell
(1933), Peltier (1950), solifluction could
result in the high-altitude planation of
mountain ranges into flattened summit
areas in a process called altiplanation
Solifluction Lobes and Terraces, Lewis Hill,
Newfoundland
Solifluction Lobes and Terraces, Colorado
Rocky Mountain National Park
Solifluction Lobes and Terraces
Patterned Ground: Stone Rings
 Solifluction: The Permafrost Problem
 In the polar regions of the world, the ground
remains frozen throughout the winter season
and the upper top layers thaws in summer

 This poses a serious

challenge to
construction engineers

 For example: Heating

melts the permafrost
causing land subsidence/
building collapse
 Above-Ground Alaska Petroleum Oil Pipeline

Why is the pipeline above

ground when transporting warm
petroleum oil product?
Moderate Mass Wasting - Rotational Slide or Slump

 Slump or rotational slide involves a downward

sliding of a mass of regolith moving as a single
unit along a curved surface of rupture
Moderate Mass Wasting: Rotational Slide or Slump
Moderate Mass Wasting: Rotational Slide or Slump
Moderate Mass Wasting: Rotational Slide or Slump

Slump curves

Rotational slide surface

Moderate Mass Wasting: Rotational Slide or Slump
 Slumping leaves behind a crescent-shaped or
cliff scarp created at the head and the block’s
upper surface becomes tilted backward

 The slump block moves downslope

 Slump occurs when slope is over steepened

 This may happen when anchoring materials at

the base is removed making materials above to
become unstable and reacts to the pull of gravity
Moderate Mass Wasting: Rotational Slide or Slump
 Earthflows frequently form at the base of the
slump
RAPID MASS WASTING
PROCESSES
- Rock Falls
- Slides
- Flows
 Types of Mass Movements
 Rapid Mass Wasting:
- Rockfalls and Debris Avalanche
- Slides:
 Debris Slides

 Rockslides

 Rotational Slides or Slump

- Flows:
 Earthflows

 Debris Flow or Mudflows

 Lahars (volcanic mudflows)

Rockfall
Rockfall
Mass Wasting: Landslide
Earthquake Triggered Landslide (2001),
Santa Tecla, El Salvador
Landslides
Mass Wasting: Earthflow
 Earthflow Caused by Infiltrating Septic Tank and
Lawn Irrigation Water, Palos Verdes Hills, CA

Sedimentary Earth Materials with buildings slipped downslope

slowly (70 feet in 3 years) as infiltrating waste water lubricated the
slippery clay layer underneath – A Major Human Factor
Mass Wasting: Rapid Rock Falls
Earthflow that Destroyed Some Houses
at La Conchita, CA in 1995
Mass Wasting: Mudflows
Rapid Mass Movement: Lahars
(Hot Volcanic Mudflows)
 Lahars are volcanic mudflows formed by:
-debris avalanches mixing with snow and
ice melt water
-pyroclastic materials mixing with
rainwater or with surges produced by dam
failures or with natural river water

 Lahars with 20-60% sediment are

turbulent or smooth flowing if sediment
content rises to over 80%
Mudflow and Lahar on Mount St. Helen
Number of Lahars Caused By Different
Volcanic Events
 Lahars (Volcanic Mudflows)
 Flow velocity may range from 1meter
per second to over 40meters per second

 Rate of down valley movement of

lahars depends on:
-valley width and slope
-flow volume
-grain size composition

 Lahars cause people, cities &

structures to be buried
Pinatubo Mt., Philippines
Volcanic Lahars (1991)
Mudflow Covering the Garage Door
MASS WASTING
AND
LANDFORMS
 Mass Wasting and Landforms
 Weathering weakens and breaks massive
country rocks into smaller fragments (clay, silt,
sand, pebbles to large rock boulders)

 Mass wasting moves these hillslope fragments

(regolith) downslope by gravity alone

 But when mass wasting combines with actions of

running water (rivers), wind, glacier, ocean
wave and groundwater, different landforms are
produced
 Mass Wasting and Landforms
 For example, when a stream cuts down its
channel floor alone without the help of mass
wasting, it produces narrow channels with
vertical walls in sandstone
formation in semi-arid to
arid environments

 (Example: Zion Narrows

of the Virgin River,
Southern Utah)
 Mass Wasting and Landforms
 Expanded Grand Canyon Valley Walls:
weathering and mass wasting working together
has greatly expand the Colorado River channel
width even in an Arid/Semi-Arid Region where
mass wasting is
highly limited

 Humid areas with

more mass wasting
activities tend to
have wider or more
open river valleys
Channel Walls of Grand Canyon Expanded
By Mass Wasting
 Mass Wasting and Landforms
 Typical hillslope elements are defined and
dominated by different types of mass wasting
and slope wash processes

Source: Richard J. Huggett (2011)

 Mass Wasting and Landforms
 According to Gilbert (1909), convex slope
segment of the hillslope is the result of soil creep

 The cliff section underneath it called the fall face

segment is dominated by rapid mass wasting
called rock falls

 The straight mid-slope

below the cliff section
is called the talus slope
built with rock falls
or screes often with
high repose slope
Landform of Mass Wasting: Talus Slope
Landforms of Mass Wasting: Talus Slope of Screes
Talus Slope of Scree
Examples of Mass Wasting Hazards
 Mass Wasting and Landforms
 Over a long period of time, steep mountain
slopes are gradually reduced to a more gentler
and subdued slopes.
 Mass Wasting and Landforms
 Weathering weakens and breaks massive
country rocks into smaller fragments (clay, silt,
sand, pebbles to large rock boulders)

 Mass wasting moves these hillslope fragments

(regolith) downslope by gravity alone

 But when mass wasting combines with actions of

running water (rivers), wind, glacier, ocean
wave and groundwater, different landforms are
produced
 Mass Wasting and Landforms
 Mass wasting is an important earth surface
geomorphic process responsible for the long
term evolution of hillslopes

Source: Richard J. Huggett (2011)

REVIEW QUESTIONS
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
1. In the evolution of many landforms mass-wasting
is the step that precedes weathering.
A. True B. False
2. Saturating the pore spaces of weathered debris with water
will usually decrease the likelihood of downslope
movement.
A. True B. False
3. Which statement regarding debris flows is NOT true?
A. debris flows may be caused by heavy rains
B. In hilly areas debris flows follow canyons and
stream valleya
C. debris flows create talus slopes
D. debris flow can move huge boulders and trucks
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
4. When and where is solifluction common?
A. rainy season in the tropics
B. dry season in subtropical deserts like the Sahara
C. summer monsoon season in India
D. summer in northern Alaska
5. Slump describes the very slow, downhill movement of
soil.
A. True B. False
6. This mass-wasting process is most frequently associated
with hillsides in humid regions during times of heavy
rains or snowmelt.
A. earthflow B. rockslide
C. unloading D. solifluction
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
7. This term is used to describe material that slides
downslope as a unit along a curved surface.
A. debris flow B. slump
C. lahar D. solifluction
8. One of the primary causes of this mass wasting process is
the alternate expansion and contraction of surface
material caused by freezing and thawing or wetting and
drying.
A. rockslide B. solifluction
C. creep D. debris flow
9. Which of these mass-wasting processes is slowest?
A. slump B. rockslide
C. debris flow D. solifluction
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
10. How do freezing, thawing, wetting, and drying
contribute to creep?
A. soil becomes much weaker when dry and
frozen
B. gravity exerts a much stronger force ehen soil is
wet and thawed
C. eventually these processes trigger sudden slides
D. the soil expands and contracts, lifting and
dropping particles a slight distance downslope
11. The steepest angle that a pile of dry unconsolidated
particles can sustain before moving downslope is its
angle of __________.
A. repose B. talus C. stability
D. retention
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting

12. The transfer of rock material downslope under the direct

influence of gravity is referred to as __________.
A. weathering B. mass wasting
C erosion D. deformation
13. A debris flow composed mostly of volcanic materials is
called a (an) __________.
A. earthflow B. solifluction lobe
C. lahar D. slump
14. When __________ occurs, a crescent-shaped scarp
(cliff) is created at its head.
A. rockfall B. slump C. creep
D. debris flow
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
15. This diagram illustrates which mass-wasting
process?

A. slump B. rockslide
C debris flow D. solifluction
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
16. Curvature of tree trunk close to the base, as
shown in this photo, is a strong evidence of
this type of mass wasting: _________.

A. solifluction B. lahar
C. soil creep D. debris flow
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
17. Cliff profiles contain the following
distinctive segments:
A. a fall face segment
B. a talus straight slope segment
C. a concave slope
D. A and B
18. The inherent frictional properties of slope
materials are related to:
A. Particle size of slope materials
B. Particle shape
C. Crushing resistance
D. Particle arrangement
E. All of the above answers
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting

19. A slope in which the shear strength of slope

materials is greater than shear stress or with
a safety factor greater than 1.3 is said to be:
A. A stable slope
B. Actively unstable slope
C. Conditionally stable slope
D. A fall face slope
E. None
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
20. Which of the following statements is not
correct about mass wasting?
A. It is a downslope movement of slope
materials in response to gravitational
stress
B. It does not require any physical medium
such as water, glacier or wind to
accomplish downslope movement of
materials
C. Occurs when shear strength of slope
materials is less than the shear stress
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
D. Soil creep, solifluction and rock falls
are good examples of mass wasting
processes
E. Actions of running water, wind, and
glacier are required to accomplish
mass wasting processes
21. High-altitude planation of mountain ranges
into flattened summits by solifluction
processes is called:
A. Peneplanation B. Etcplanation
C. Pediplanation D. Altiplanation
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
22. The rate of movement of soil creep is a
function of:
A. Slope angle
B. Susceptibility of slope materials
C. Water content
D. All of the above answers
23. A landform resulting from the free fall of rock
materials is the:
A. rock glacier B. peneplain
C. talus slope D. alluvial fan
E. Mudflow
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
24. Soil creep results from:
A. the slow movement of soil organisms
B. chemical reactions between the regolith
and bedrock materials
C. changes in the soil volume
D. Disturbance of soil on a slope
E. the drying out of fine particles on a slope
25. Slumping is different from other forms of
earthflow or mass wasting in that:
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
A. only gentle slopes are required
B. it involves some backward rotation
C. more water is needed than in other
forms of flow
D. lubricating water is unnecessary
E. it occurs only on very steep slopes
26. Which of the following is the most fluid type
of mass movement?
A. earthflow B. mudflow
C. Solifluction D. slump
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
27. The normal force (Fn) is an indication of
frictional resistance
A. True B. False
28. The following equation Fn = FgCosØ shows
that Fn is at a zero on a horizontal surface and
at a maximum on a vertical surface or slope
A. True B. False
29 In dry slopes, pore-water pressure is zero or
negative causing adhesion of slope materials
A. True B. False
30. The above-ground Alaskan pipeline
transporting warm petroleum oil product
 Review Questions for Mass Wasting
cannot be transported through underground
pipeline in this region because:
A. It is a forbidden practice in the region by
the local people
B. the ground is permanently frozen
C. the warm oil will melt the permafrost
and induce land subsidence and the
collapse of the pipeline
D. the petroleum oil product must be kept at
the same temperature throughout the
transporting period
E. A and D.