Types of Mass Wasting

A rock fall are the fastest of all landslide types and occurs when a rock falls through the
air until it comes to rest on the ground—not too complicated. In Utah, they are common
in the spring and fall because of freeze-thaw weathering. In the daytime, temperatures
in the spring and fall tend to be above freezing, which allows liquid water to enter cracks
within rocks.

At night, the temperatures cool below freezing and the water within the rocks freezes
and expands which causes the rock to break more. The following morning, the ice will
melt and go deeper within the crack to refreeze later that night. This freeze-thaw action
over time can cause rocks to break off and fall to the ground. The debris the
accumulates at the base of these steep slopes is called talus.

But rock falls can also occur when heavy precipitation is falling on a steep slope,
causing the rocks to lose friction and fall.

Rotational Slides
Rotational slides occur when the a landslide occurs in a curved manner concave to the
sky. When this type of slide occurs, the upper surface of the slide tilts backwards toward
the original slope and the lower surface moves away from the slope. They are common
when the soil tends to be deep in clay or soft sediment deposits. The video on the right
is a large landslide again in Taiwan in early September 2013 following every rainfall.
Needless to say, they were having a bad few days in the region.

Transitional Slides
Rather than rotating, a translational slide occurs when slope failure occurs parallel to
the slope. Often times the slope failure occurs on soil composed of clay or shale, or
along old fault lines, or previous slide areas. What makes translational slides dangerous
is that they tend to flow faster and travel farther than rotational slides. The most
expensive translational slide in U.S. history actually occurred in Thistle, Utah in
1983.Debris flows are one of the most common, but most dangerous of the various
types of landslides because of their speed and consistency. Debris flows tend to be a
mixture of rock and water with two to three times the density of flooding streams. That
density allows debris flows strip away the land and pick up objects as large as school
buses. Debris flows are most common at the mouth of canyons along alluvial fans. Lets
first explain an alluvial fan. When floods occur within the mouth of a canyon, either
because of intense thunderstorms or snow melt, the erosive power of the water can pick
up sediment and boulders – a debris flow. Now once the debris flow reaches the mouth
of a canyon, the sediment gets deposited in a fan-shaped delta called an alluvial fan.
The problem is that people like to live along alluvial fans because of their scenic view on
the canyon. Another influence of debris flows is wildfires. When a wildfire strips an area
of its vegetation, the bare soil is easily eroded away in either a thunderstorm or snow
melt creating these debris flows. Because of Utah’s topography and tendency to
wildfires, debris flows are quite common.
Lahars were mentioned in the module on volcanoes, but in essence they are volcanic
landslides. Recall that volcanoes eject pyroclastic material ranging is size from ash to
boulders. Now there tends to be two ways lahars occur. One is if a thunderstorm
precipitates large amounts of moisture on the pyroclastic material and the pyroclastics
flow down slope. The other option is if a volcano is snow-capped and the heat from the
volcano causes some of the snow to melt and mix with the pyroclastic material. What
makes lahars so dangerous is that they have the consistency of concrete and can travel
hundreds of miles. For a breakdown of potential landslide types in the State of Utah,
check out the Utah Geologic Survey.

Mass Wasting
If a rock slides off of a mountain and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound? Well, I don't
know about the noise this activity would create, but I do know that mountains erode and that rocks
and debris can slide and fall down mountain slopes in massive amounts. In this lesson, you will learn
about a process called mass wasting and the factors that cause this movement of material.
Mass wasting, which is sometimes called mass movement or slope movement, is defined as the
large movement of rock, soil and debris downward due to the force of gravity. In other words, the
earth's outer crust is being 'wasted' away on a 'massive' scale and falling to lower elevations.
Mass wasting is a type of erosion, and it is capable of making big changes to the side of a mountain.
These changes can happen suddenly, as in one minute the rock is there and the next it is gone, or it
can happen more slowly over time. You might think of this process as a landslide, and this term is
sometimes used interchangeably with mass wasting. However, the term landslide is a bit limiting and
does not allow for a description of the many different triggers and types of erosion that can happen
on this large of a scale.

Causes of Mass Wasting

Now, we mentioned that mass wasting is mainly due to gravity. So, we see that mountains have an
ongoing tug-of-war with gravity. Gravity is constantly trying to pull rock and debris down the slope of
a mountain. At the same time, the resistive forces of the mountain, including the cohesive strength
and internal friction between the materials, referred to as the mountain's shear strength, constantly
pulls back against gravity.
The shear strength works to maintain the slope's stability and keep the materials in place. This is a
lot like a mountain climber gripping onto the side of a mountain and resisting gravity. The climber
uses his grip strength to resist gravity, like the mountain uses its shear strength.
With this understanding, we see that the causes of mass wasting occur when gravitational force
overcomes the resistive forces of the mountain. And, since gravitational pull is always constant, then
we see that mass wasting occurs when something changes the mountain's ability to resist gravity.
For instance, an increased slope steepness increases mass wasting simply because the
gravitational force acting on a steep slope is greater than the force acting on a gentle slope.
Increasing the steepness of a slope is one way man can increase mass wasting. For example, if a
road crew cuts away a slope to make room for a new road but makes the angle of the slope too
steep, the slope will be prone to mass wasting, and you will want to cross your fingers when you
drive past this steep slope so no rocks or debris fall on your car!
Increased water is another factor that plays an important role in mass wasting. Water can wash
away small particles that help keep the mountainside intact. This is similar to what happens when a
wave comes ashore and washes away a sandcastle. The abundant water breaks apart the small
sand particles and destroys the structural stability of the castle you spent the afternoon building.
If an area has decreased vegetation, it will be more prone to mass wasting. Vegetation stabilizes soil
particles on the surface and anchors soil under the surface through its root system. This is much like
comparing two sand dunes on a beach. If one sand dune has grasses growing on it, it will resist the
erosion of water and wind better than a sand dune without vegetation.
Another factor that plays a role in mass wasting is earthquakes. The violent shaking that occurs in a
region where an earthquake takes place has the ability to break off sections of mountains or hills,
causing them to slide down the slope.
Mass-wasting is the down-slope movement of Regolith (loose uncemented mixture of soil
and rock particles that covers the Earth's surface) by the force of gravity without the aid of a
transporting medium such as water, ice, or wind. Still, as we shall see, water plays a key
role. Mass-wasting is part of a continuum of erosional processes between weathering and
stream transport. Mass-wasting causes regolith to move down-slope where sooner or later
the loose particles will be picked up by another transporting agent and eventually moved to
a site of deposition such as an ocean basin or lake bed. In order for regolith to move in a
mass wasting process it must be on a slope, since gravity will only cause motion if the
material is on a slope.

Gravity

Gravity is a force that acts everywhere on the Earth's surface, pulling everything in a
direction toward the center of the Earth. On a flat surface, parallel to the Earth's surface the
force of gravity acts downward. So long as the material remains on the flat surface it will not
move under the force of gravity.
On a slope, the force of gravity can be resolved into two components: a component acting
perpendicular to the slope, and a component acting tangential to the slope.

 The perpendicular component of gravity, gp, helps to hold the object in place on the
slope.
 The tangential component of gravity, gt, causes a shear stress parallel to the slope
and helps to move the object in the down-slope direction.
 On a steeper slope, the shear stress or tangential component of gravity, gt,
increases, and the perpendicular component of gravity, gp, decreases.
 Another force resisting movement down the slope is grouped under the term shear
strength and includes frictional resistance and cohesion among the particles that
make up the object.
 When the sheer stress becomes greater than the combination of forces holding the
object on the slope, the object will move down-slope.

Thus, down-slope movement is favored by steeper slope angles (increasing the shear
stress) and anything that reduces the shear strength (such as lowering the cohesion among
the particles or lowering the frictional resistance. 

The Role of Water

Although water is not directly involved as the transporting medium in mass-wasting

processes, it does play an important role. Think about building a sandcastle on the beach. If
the sand is totally dry, it is impossible to build a pile of sand with a steep face like a castle
wall. If the sand is somewhat wet, however, one can build a vertical wall. If the sand is too
wet, then it flows like a fluid and cannot remain in position as a wall.

Dry unconsolidated grains will form a pile with a slope angle determined by the angle of
repose. The angle of repose is the steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated grains
remains stable, and is controlled by the frictional contact between the grains. In general, for
dry materials the angle of repose increases with increasing grain size, but usually lies
between about 30 and 37 degrees. 
Slightly wet unconsolidated materials exhibit a very high angle of repose because surface
tension between the water and the grains tends to hold the grains in place.
 

When the material becomes saturated with water, the angle of repose is reduced to very
small values and the material tends to flow like a fluid. This is because the water gets
between the grains and eliminates grain to grain frictional contact. 

Mass-Wasting Processes

The down-slope movement of material, whether it be bedrock, regolith, or a mixture of

these, is commonly referred to as a landslide. All of these processes generally grade into
one another, so classification of mass-wasting processes is somewhat difficult. We will use
the classification used by your textbook, which divides mass wasting processes into two
broad categories and further subdivides these categories. 
Slope Failures- a sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris down hill by
sliding, rolling, falling, or slumping.

 Sediment Flows- debris flows down hill mixed with water or air.
 Slope Failures
Slumps - types of slides wherein downward rotation of rock or regolith occurs along a
curved surface. The upper surface of each slump block remains relatively undisturbed, as
do the individual blocks. Slumps leave arcuate scars or depressions on the hill slope. Heavy
rains or earthquakes usually trigger slumps.
 
Rock Falls and Debris Falls - Rock falls occur when a piece of rock on a steep slope
becomes dislodged and falls down the slope. Debris falls are similar, except they involve a
mixture of soil, regolith, and rocks. A rock fall may be a single rock, or a mass of rocks, and
the falling rocks can dislodge other rocks as they collide with the cliff. At the base of most
cliffs is an accumulation of fallen material termed talus. The slope of the talus is controlled
by the angle of repose for the size of the material. Since talus results from falling large rocks
or masses of debris the angle of repose is usually greater than it would be for sand. 
Rock Slides and Debris Slides - Rock slides and debris slides result when rocks or debris
slide down a pre-existing surface, such as a bedding plane or joint surface. Piles of talus
are common at the base of a rock slide or debris slide. 
  Sediment Flows Sediment flows occur when sufficient force is applied to rocks and regolith
that they begin to flow down slope. A sediment flow is a mixture of rock, regolith with some
water. They can be broken into two types depending on the amount of water present.

 Slurry Flows- are sediment flows that contain between about 20 and 40% water. As
the water content increases above about 40% slurry flows grade into streams.

Granular Flows - are sediment flows that contain between 20 and 0% water. Note
that granular flows are possible with little or no water. Fluid-like behavior is given
these flows by mixing with air.

Each of these classes of sediment flows can be further subdivided on the basis of the
velocity at which flowage occurs. 
Slurry Flows

 Solifluction - flowage at rates measured on the order of centimeters per year of

regolith containing water. Solifluction produces distinctive lobes on hill slopes .
These occur in areas where the soil remains saturated with water for long periods of
time.
 Debris Flows-these occur at higher velocities than solifluction, and often result from
heavy rains causing saturation of the soil and regolith with water. They sometimes
start with slumps and then flow down hill forming to lobes with an irregular surface
consisting of ridges and furrows.
 Mudflows- a highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment and water that has a
consistency of wet concrete. These usually result from heavy rains in areas where
there is an abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by streams.
Thus after a heavy rain streams can turn into mudflows as they pick up more and
more loose sediment. Mudflows can travel for long distances over gently sloping
stream beds. Because of their high velocity and long distance of travel they are
potentially very dangerous.

Granular Flows
  Creep- the very slow, usually continuous movement of regolith down slope. Creep
occurs on almost all slopes, but the rates vary. Evidence for creep is often seen in
bent trees, offsets in roads and fences, and inclined utility poles .
 Earthflows - are usually associated with heavy rains and move at velocities between
several cm/yr and 110s of m/day. They usually remain active for long periods of time.
They generally tend to be narrow tongue-like features that begin at a scarp or small
cliff
 Grain Flows - usually form in relatively dry material, such as a sand dune, on a steep
slope. A small disturbance sends the dry unconsolidated grains moving rapidly down
slope.
 Debris Avalanches - These are very high velocity flows of large volume mixtures of
rock and regolith that result from complete collapse of a mountainous slope. They
move down slope and then can travel for considerable distances along relatively
gentle slopes. They are often triggered by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Mass-Wasting in Cold Climates

Mass-wasting in cold climates is governed by the fact that water is frozen as ice during long
periods of the year. Ice, although it is solid, does have the ability to flow, and freezing and
thawing cycles can also contribute to movement.

 Frost Heaving - this process is large contributor to creep in cold climates. When
water saturated soils freeze, they expand, pushing rocks and boulders on the
surface upward perpendicular to the slope. When the soil thaws, the boulders move
down vertically resulting in a net down slope movement.
 Gelifluction - Similar to solifluction, this process occurs when the upper layers of soil
thaw during the warmer months resulting in water saturated soil that moves down
slope.
 Rock Glaciers - a lobe of ice-cemented rock debris (mostly rocks with ice between
the blocks) that slowly moves downhill

Subaqueous Mass-Wasting

Mass wasting processes also occur on steep slopes in the ocean basins. A slope failure can
occur due to over-accumulation of sediment on slope or in a submarine canyon, or could
occur as a result of a shock like an earthquake. Slumps, debris flows, and landslides are
common.
Triggering of Mass-Wasting Events

A mass-wasting event can occur any time a slope becomes unstable. Sometimes, as in the
case of creep or solifluction, the slope is unstable all of the time, and the process is
continuous. But other times, triggering events can occur that cause a sudden instability to
occur.

 Shocks - A sudden shock, such as an earthquake may trigger a slope instability.

Minor shocks like heavy trucks rambling down the road, trees blowing in the wind, or
man made explosions can also trigger mass-wasting events.
 Slope Modification - modification of slope either by humans or by natural causes can
result in changing the slope angle so that it is no longer at the angle of repose. A
mass-wasting event can then restore the slope to its angle of repose.

Undercutting
- streams eroding their banks or surf action along a coast can undercut a slope making it
unstable.

Exceptional Precipitation - heavy rains can saturate regolith reducing grain to grain contact
and reducing the angle of repose, thus triggering a mass-wasting event. Volcanic Eruptions
- produce shocks like explosions and earthquakes. They can also cause snow to melt or
empty crater lakes, rapidly releasing large amounts of water that can be mixed with regolith
to reduce grain to grain contact and result in debris flows, mudflows, and landslides.
 
Submarine Slope Failures - these can be caused by rapid deposition of sediment that does
not allow water trapped between grains to escape, or by generation of methane gas from
the decay of organic material, which increases pressure between unconsolidated grains and
thus reduces grain to grain contact.