Lecture-1.

Governing Laws for Thermal Radiation

Contents of the lecture

1.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.6 Geometrical Considerations
1.7 Governing Laws for Thermal Radiation
1.8 Blackbody Radiation in a Wavelength Interval
1.10 Historical Note – Origin of Quantum Mechanics
1.11 Blackbody Emission into a Medium Other than Vacuum
1.12 Summary

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 What is heat transfer?
Heat transfer (or heat) is energy in transit due to
a temperature difference

HEAT TRANSFER MODES

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 The convention (in this lecture series) is

Amount of heat (energy) Q in J

Heat transfer rate Q in W (J/s)

Heat flux q in W/m2

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Radiation which is given off by a body
because of its temperature is called
thermal radiation

A body of a temperature larger than 0 K

emits thermal radiation

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 A scene from “Silence of the lambs”

A photograph of a car
taken with taken with
an an
ordinary infrared
camera camera

The number plate has been wiped out

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
 RELEVANCE OF THERMAL RADIATION

Q conduction  T1  T2
Qconvection  T T
1 2

Qradiation  T1  T2
4 4

When no medium is present radiation is the only

mode of heat transfer

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Classical theory

Quantum theory
E photon  h  v h  6.63 10 34
J s

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
 SPEED, FREQUENCY and WAVELENGTH

For any wave:

w   
Determined Determined by
by the medium the source

For electromagnetic waves:

c   
c=3·108 m/s ( in vacuum)

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 SPEED, FREQUENCY and WAVELENGTH

For a medium other than vacuum:

c
c medium 
nmedium
The frequency stays the same so,


 medium 
nmedium

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 COMMON UNITS FOR WAVELENGTH

1 micrometer = 10-6 m

1 nanometer = 10-9 m

1 angstrom = 10-10 m

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Example 1.1 (Calculate energy of photons)
Energy in Number of
Frequency Photon
electron photons in a
(Hz) energy in J joule of energy
volts
Short radio
waves 6.63·10-27 4.1·10-8 1.5·1026
ν=107
Visible light
waves 6.63·10-19 4.1 1.5·1018
ν=1015
X-rays
ν=1018 6.63·10-16 4.1·103 1.5·1015

Gamma
rays 6.63·10-14 4.1·105 1.5·1013
ν=1020
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
THERMAL RADIATION

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 1.6 Geometrical Considerations

1.6.1 Normal to a Surface Element

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 1.6.2 Solid Angle

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Example 1.2
Derive formula for calculating the length of an arc and
the circumference of a circle.

ds  R  d Plane angle
in radiance
2

s  R   d  R    2   1 
1

Length of an arc  Radius  Plane angle in radians

Circumference of the circle  R  2

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
 Derive formula for calculating the area of a sphere

dA  R  d 2
The solid angle
in steradians
2

A  R   d  R   2  1 
2 2

1

Area of a part of the sphere 

  Radius   Solid angle in steradians
2

How to calculate the solid angle?

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 How to calculate the solid angle?

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 How to calculate the solid angle?

dAs
d  2
R

   
dAs  R  d  R  sin   d  R  sin   d  d
2

d  sin   d  d

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Now we can complete the integration since we know
how to calculate the solid angle:
2  2 2
A  R 2   d  R 2    sin  d  d 
1 1 1

 R    2  1     cos    
2 2
1

 R    2  1   (cos 1  cos  2 )
2

Area (hemisphere)  R  2  (1  0)  2  R
2 2

Solid angle for a hemisphere is 2

Solid angle for a sphere is 4
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
 1.6.3 Area and Projected Area

dAP  dA  cos 

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 1.6.4 Radiation Intensity and Irradiation

indicates direction
W
i  is the spectral intensity in 2
'

m (Projected Area)  sr  m

W
i  is the total intensity in 2
'

m (Projected Area)  sr

i   i  d
' '

0

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Irradiation

g     ( , ,  )  cos   d
'
i
all directions

2  / 2
g      ( , ,  )  cos  sin   d  d 
'
i
 
0 0

for isotropic incoming radiation

 /2
1
g      i'   sin( 2 )  d (2 ) 
2 0

1
    i    cos(2 ) 0    i'
'  /2

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 For isotropic radiation

g     i '


g    i '

An important integral in radiation

  2  / 2


hemisphere
cos   d 

 
0
 cos   sin   d  d  
0

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 1.7 Governing Laws for Thermal Radiation
1.7.1 Black Body Radiation
Real surfaces (bodies)
g    g    g    g

reflectivity

absorptivity

transmissivity

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 BLACK BODY RADIATION

Definition of a black body

A black body is defined as an ideal body that all

incident radiation pass into it and internally absorbs
all the incident radiation.
This is true for radiation of all wavelengths and for all angles
of incidence

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 BLACK BODY RADIATION

Properties:

Black body is a perfect emitter

In a black body enclosure radiation is isotropic
Black body is a perfect emitter in each direction
Black body is a perfect emitter at any wavelength
Total radiation of a black body into vacuum is a
function of temperature only

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 The angular distribution of radiation intensity
emitted by a black body

e b   b      b        
' ' '
i cos d i cos d ib
hemisphere hemisphere

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 1.7.2 Planck’s Radiation Law

C1 1
e b ( , T )    i ( , T )  5  C2 / T
'
b
 e 1
16
C1  3.7418 10 Wm 2

2
C2  1.438769 10 mK

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Planck’s Radiation Law

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Planck’s Radiation Law

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 e b ( , T ) C1 1
  C / T
T 5
  T  e 2 1
5

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 See Example 1.4 of the lecture notes to understand
the meaning of:

Frequency distribution

Cumulative frequency distribution

Relative cumulative frequency distribution

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4
Height per Number of Class mark
class (cm) students (cm)
-Frequency
153-159 4 156
160-166 12 163
167-173 18 170
174-180 25 177
181-187 33 184
188-194 22 191
195-201 11 198
202-208 5 205
TOTAL 130

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4

Histogram and frequency polygon of heights of 130 students

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4

Area   f ( x)  dx    (4  12  18  25  33  22  11  5)   130
P

Δ  7cm is the width of the class

Area  the total number of students (130)

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4
Cumulative distribution
(less than the upper class boundary)
Height (cm) Number of students
Less than 153 cm 0
Less than 160 cm 4
Less than 167 cm 16
Less than 174 cm 34
Less than 181 cm 59
Less than 188 cm 92
Less than 195 cm 114
Less than 201 cm 125
Less than 208 cm 130

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4

Students smaller than 174 cm

174
1 1
F(less than 174cm)  4  12  18     (4  12  18)  
   f ( x)  dx
0

The relative cumulative distribution

174

4  12  18   f ( x)  dx
F (less than 174 cm)    0

130 
 f ( x)  dx
0

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

Example 1.4
Cumulative distribution

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 1.7.3 Wien’s Displacement Law
We are looking for a wavelength that maximizes
the Planck’s function for a given temperature
C1 1
e b ( , T )  5  C2 / T
 e 1
 C1    e
5

C 2 / T
1
1

de b
d

C1 C2 / T
 (5)  6  e


1
1 

C1
 5  (1)  e


C 2 / T
 
2
1  e 
C 2 / T C2
  (1)    0
T
2

C2 1
   T    C2 /  T
5 1 e
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
 C2 1
f ( �
T)  �  C2 /  �T    �
T
5 1 e

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Wien’s Law

max T  C3  2,898 μm  K

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 1.7.4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

e b   e b ( , T )  d  ?
0
�
C1 T4 �
C1 x3 0
C2
e&b  �5 C /  �T d 
� �
� dx
� x
 e 2  1
0  �
4 x
C2 � e  1  T
0
x3 
� x
dx 
�
�
e 1 15
C1 
e b  4   T 4    T 4
C2 15

Stefan-Boltzmann
  5.67 �
10 W/(m �
K )8 2 4
constant
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
 1.8 Blackbody Radiation in a Wavelength Interval

2

 e  ( , T )  d 1
2

4  
F1T _ 2T  
1
 e ( , T )  d
T 1
 e  ( , T )  d
0
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
 2
1
4  b
F1T _ 2T   e ( , T )  d 
  T 1
1  2 1

4   b
  e ( , T )  d   e b ( , T )  d   F0 _ 2T  F0 _ 1T
  T  0 0 

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 2T 1T
1 � e&b ( , T ) e&b ( , T ) �
F1T _ 2T  �� 5 �
� d (T )  � 5 � d (T ) � F0 _ 2T  F0 _ 1T
 �0 T 0
T �

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

1.9 Blackbody Emission into a Medium Other than Vacuum
C1 1
e b ( , T )  5  C2 / T
 e 1
c 
cm  m 
n n
h  cm
C1m  2  h  c  C1 / n
2
m
2
C2 m   C2 / n
k

e mb (m , T )  n  e b ( , T )
3

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 e bm (m , T )  n  e b ( , T )
3

n- refractive index

Planck’s function in vacuum

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

e bm  n    T
2 4

Wien’s Displacement Law

C3
max,n  T 
n

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 1.10 Historical Note – Origin of Quantum Mechanics

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 a 1 The challenge was in
e b ( , T )  5  b / T deriving a and b constants
 e 1
from the first principle

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 Quantification of energy (Max Planck – 1990)

E  mhv
m=1,2,3,... – quantum number

Ten years later Planck wrote:

“My futile attempts to fit the elementary quantum of

action (h) somehow into the classical theory continued for
a number of years, and they cost me a great deal of efforts”

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006

 In 1905 Albert Einstein made an assumption
the energy of a light was concentrated into
localized bundles – later called photons

E  h 
Planck, the originator of the h constant, did not accept
at once Einstein’s photons. In 1913 Planck wrote about
Einstein “that he sometimes have missed the target in his
speculations, as for example in his theory of light
quanta,
cannot really be held against him”
In 1918 – Planck received a Nobel prize “for his discovery
of energy quanta”
In 1921 – Einstein received his Nobel prize “for his service
to
theoretical physics and specially for discovery of the law of
photoelectric effect”
Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006
 1.12 Summary

Students should understand:

The concepts of radiation intensity and emissive power

The radiation laws for black-body radiation

Planck’s law

Wien’s law
Stefan-Boltzmann law

Advanced Heat Transfer - Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Weber - Winter 2005/2006