AS BIOLOGY

The ultrastructure of the cell

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section you should be able to:-
• Recognise the following organelles from a diagram of the
eukaryotic animal and plant cell (rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes,
chloroplasts, plasma (cell surface) membrane, nuclear envelope, centrioles,
nucleus, nucleolus and cilia).
• Outline the functions of the following structures:-rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes,
lysosomes, chloroplasts, plasma (cell surface) membrane, nuclear
envelope, centrioles, nucleus, nucleolus and cilia.
 The Eukaryotic Cell
The Beginnings
•Robert Hooke was the first person to observe cells in 1665.
•He looked at thin slices of cork under a very simple microscope.
•The cork appeared as little boxes which he called cells.
•In 1883 MathiasSchleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed that all
plants and animals were composed of cells which were the basic
building blocks of life.
•In 1855 Rudolf Virchow stated that new cells arise from the
division of pre-existing cells and that chemical reactions needed for
life occurred inside the cell.
•All this work led to the formation of the cell theory (click to
complete exercise on cell theory)

•For more information click on link below

http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/unity/cell.text.htm
 Eukaryotic Animal Cell
• Eukaryotic means “true nucleus”
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus which contains the
DNA.
• Eukaryotic animal cells are surrounded by a cell
membrane.
• Inside is the jelly like substance called cytoplasm.
• Contained in the cytoplasm is the nucleus and other
organelles (copy the glossary file into your area and continue to add words and meanings)
• The other cell organelles include the endoplasmic
reticulum(rough & smooth), mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, ribosomes, lysosomes, centrioles, cilia,
nucleolus.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
• Complex system of sheet like • Forms an extensive transport
double membranes continuous system
with the nuclear membrane • Site of protein synthesis
• Fluid filled spaces/sacs (Rough ER)
between the membranes • Site of lipid, steroid and
called CISTERNAE which carbohydrate synthesis
allow materials to be (smooth ER)
transported through cell • Stores and transports these
• Two types of ER – materials
– smooth – has no ribosomes • SEE DIAGRAM
attached (RER)
– rough – has ribosomes
attached (SER)
 Mitochondria
STRUCTURE
• Relatively large organelle
FUNCTION
• Rod/sausage shaped – 1um –
5um
• Have a double membrane • Site of aerobic respiration (Krebs
cycle & oxidative phosphorylation)
– The outer controls the entry &
exit of materials • Responsible for the production of
energy rich ATP molecules
– Inner has many folds called
cristae • The numbers of mitochondria
reflect the metabolic activity of the
• Surface of each crista is covered cell – so large numbers are found
with stalked particles where ATP in muscle and liver cells
is made
• SEE DIAGRAM
• Mitochondria are filled with a jelly
like matrix
• The matrix contains proteins,
lipids, ribosomes and loops of
DNA
• Mitochondria can replicate
themselves when the cell divides
 Golgi apparatus
STRUCTURE
• Formed from small pieces of
rough ER which form small
vesicles which join to make a
Golgi body
• Chemicals made in the ER
collect in the Golgi body where
they are modified
• Small vesicles can then be
‘pinched’ off the Golgi body
carrying new chemicals away
which are secreted when the
vesicle reaches the cell
membrane
• Some of the vesicles become
lysosomes
FUNCTION
• Assembling glycoproteins
(such as mucin) by combining
carbohydrate and protein
• Transporting and storing lipids
• Formation of lysosomes
• Producing digestive enzymes
• Secretes carbohydrates which
are used in the formation of
plant cell walls and in insect
cuticles
• SEE DIAGRAM
What have you learnt?
Click here to walk the plank
 Ribosomes
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
• Small dense structures found • Synthesize proteins
in huge numbers. • Synthesize enzymes
• Can be attached to the rough
ER of floating in the cytoplasm. • SEE DIAGRAM
• Are about 20 – 25 nm in
diameter in eukaryotic cells
and slightly smaller in
prokaryotic cells
• (80s type – eukaryotic)
• (70s type – prokaryotic)
• Made up from two sub units
 Lysosomes
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
• Small vacuoles formed when • Release enzymes which
small pieces of Golgi body are destroy worn out organelles
pinched off • Digest material taken into the
• Contain hydrolytic enzymes cell (eg white blood cells which
which digest materials in the have engulfed a bacterium) –
cell phagocytosis
• Release enzymes to the
outside of the cell which digest
• SEE DIAGRAM material around the cell –
exocytosis
• Completely break down cells
after they have died – autolysis
Plasma (cell surface) membrane
STRUCTURE
• This is the boundary between
the cell cytoplasm & the
environment
• Is partially permeable
• Made up 45% protein & 45%
phospholipids with the
remaining 10% cholesterol,
glycoprotein & glycolipids
FUNCTION
• Controls movement of
substances in & out of the cell
• Forms a recognition site so
that the body’s immune system
can recognize its own cells
• Acts as a receptor site for the
attachment of specific
hormones and
neurotransmitters.
• SEE DIAGRAM
 Nucleus, Nucleolus &
STRUCTURE
Nuclear envelope
• Largest organelle in the cell (10um FUNCTION
diameter)
• Surrounded by a nuclear membrane
/ envelope • Acts as the control centre of the
cell through the production of
• Double membrane – outer is mRNA and protein synthesis
continuous with the ER
• Retains the genetic material in the
• Nuclear pores in the membrane cell in the form of DNA /
allow the passage of large chromosomes
molecules in & out (eg
messengerRNA) • Manufactures ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) & ribosomes
• Material inside the nucleus is called
nucleoplasm – this contains • Starts the process of cell division
chromatin which makes up the DNA
of the cell – in non-dividing cells it is • SEE DIAGRAM
spread out and during cell division it
condenses to form the
chromosomes • What have you learnt?
• A spherical structure called the • Click here to complete the
nucleolus is found in the nucleus – crossword
this makes ribosomal RNA and
assembles the ribosomes.
 Cilia
STRUCTURE
• 3-10 um in length, 0.2um
in diameter
• Made of rings of 9 pairs
of microtubules
• Have basal body
embedded in cytoplasm
• Rest extends from basal
body
• Only a few types of cell
possess cilia
• On cells which have cilia
there are large numbers
FUNCTION
• To move an entire
organism (eg in
paramecium it propels it
through the water)
• To move material within
an organism ( eg cilia in
the lining of the
respiratory tract)
• SEE DIAGRAM
 CENTRIOLES
(not found in plant cells)
• Two short bundles of hollow cylinders (microtubules)
positioned at right angles to each other
• Found just outside the nucleus in a clear area of
cytoplasm called the centrosome
• Wall of each centriole is made of 9 triplets of tubes
arranged at an angle
• During cell division they migrate to opposite poles to
produce the spindle – which helps to move the
chromosomes during cell division

• SEE DIAGRAM
 Chloroplasts
• Found inside photosynthetic tissues of plants (abundant in palisade
mesophyll cells of leaves)
• Flat discs 2-10 um in diameter & 1um thick
• Have a double membrane called the chloroplast envelope
• Inner membrane folded into a series of lamellae
• Membrane controls the entry & exit of substances
• Inside the membrane is a fluid – stroma – which contains the enzymes
involved in photostnthesis
• Small amounts of DNA and oil are found in the stroma
• In stroma is a network of flattened sacs called thylakoids
• Grana (granum = sing) are formed when many thylakoids are stacked
together (like a pile of coins) (thylakoids also called lamella)
• Chlorophyll molecules are attached to the thylakoids
• Large starch grains are also present which act as a tempory store of
charbohydrate made in photosynthesis
• SEE DIAGRAM
• Click here to label the eukaryotic animal cell
Click here to play cell organelles
catch phrase