FACILITATING

Learning/
Developmental
Theories
 JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
OF DEVELOPMENT
- this focus on how individuals
construct knowledge.
- this theory is applied widely to
teaching and curriculum design
especially in the preschool and
elementary curricula.
 Basic Cognitive Concepts
 SCHEMA- refer to the cognitive structures by
w/c individuals intellectually adapt and
organize their environment. It is an
individual’s way to understand or create
meaning about a thing or experience.
- it is like a filing cabinet that contains files of
things he had an experience w/.
ex. If a child sees a dog for the first time, he
creates his own schema of what a dog is. It
has 4 legs, tail and it barks and it’s furry.
 ASSIMILATION – the process of fitting a
new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structure or
schema.
- if the child sees another dog, this
time a smaller one, he would make sense
of what he is seeing by adding this new
information( a different-looking dog) into
his schema of a dog.
 ACCOMODATION- this is a process of creating
a new schema. If the child now sees another
animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but
somehow different.
- He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog
and say, “look mommy, what a funny looking
dog. It’s bark is funny too! Then his mommy
explains, “that’s not a funny looking dog.
That’s a goat! W/ that descriptions, the child
will now create a new schema that of a goat.
He now adds new information.
EQUILIBRATION- it means achieving proper
balance between assimilation and
accommodation. To find order, structure.
-When our experiences do not match our
schema or cognitive structures, we then,
experience cognitive disequilibrium.
- this means there is discrepancy bet.
what is perceived and what is understood.
 PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEV’T
1. SENSORI-MOTOR STAGE-focuses on senses
and muscle movement which the infant
comes to learn about himself and the world.
- teachers at this stage should provide a rich
and stimulating environment w/ appropriate
objects to play w/.
- OBJECT PERMANENCE= ability of the child to
know that an object still exists even when out
of sight.
2. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE- this is a preschool
years, intelligence at this stage is
intuitive(spontaneous) in nature, the child
makes mental representations thru the use
of symbols.
- SYMBOLIC FUNCTION- ability of the child to
represent objects and events thru drawing, a
written word.
- EGOCENTRISM- the tendency of the child to
only see his point of view and assume that
everyone has his same point of view.
- CENTRATION- the tendency to focus only on
one aspect of a thing or event and exclude
other aspects.
ex. A child sees the two glasses of the same
amount of water equal, but when the other
glass of water is transferred to a taller glass,
he might sees it of having more water than
the previous glass.- the child focussed or
centered on one aspect of new glass.
- REVERSIBILITY- pre-operational children has
the inability to reverse their thinking. Like,
they can understand that 2+3 is 5, but cannot
understand that 5-3 is 2.
- ANIMISM- children attributes human like
traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
When at night, the child is asked, where the
sun is, she will reply, “ Mr Sun is asleep.”
- TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING- the reasoning
that is neither inductive nor deductive- If A
causes B, then B causes A.
- ex. When a child is asked why it is already
night, the child will say, because my dad is
already home.
3. CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE- this is the
elementary school years.
-DECENTERING- ability of the child to
perceive the different features of objects and
situations. Allows the child to be more logical
when dealing w/ concrete objects and
situations.
- CONSERVATION- the ability to know that
certain properties of objects like number,
mass, volume or area do not change even if
there is a change in appearance.
- SERIATION- ability of the child to arrange or put
order to things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume or size.
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE- covering ages
bet. 12 and 15 yrs, thinking becomes more
logical. They can now solve abstract problems
and can hypothesize.
- HYPOTHETICAL REASONING- ability to come up
w/ different hypothesis about a problem and to
gather and weigh data in order to make a final
decision or judgment. Individuals can now deal
w/ “What if” questions.
 What is the teaching implication?
- teacher as a facilitator and guide, not a director;
provide support for children to explore their
world and discover knowledge.

Applications of Piaget’s theory:

 Take a constructivist approach- children learn best when
they are active and seek solutions for themselves. Letting
them discover, reflect and discuss rather imitating the
teacher or doing things by rote. Piaget opposed
teaching methods that treat children as passive
receptacles.
 Facilitate rather than direct learning- allowing the
students to learn by doing. Teachers listen, watch and
question students to help them gain better
understanding.
Consider the child’s knowledge and level of
thinking- students do not come to class with
empty heads; they have also ideas about the
physical and natural world. Teachers need to
interpret what a student is saying and respond
in a mode of discourse that is not too far from
the student’s level.
Use ongoing assessment- written and verbal
explanations of students can be used to
evaluate progress.
Promote the student’s intellectual health-
children should not be pushed and pressured
into achieving too much too early in their
development, before they are ready.
Turn the classroom into a setting of
exploration and discovery- teachers emphasize
students’ own exploration and discovery. The
classroom should be less structured than what
we think of as a typical classroom. Teachers
allow the students to express their interests
and natural participation in activities.
 VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL
THEORY
 LEV Vygotsky emphasized that effective
learning happens through participation in
social activities. Parents, teachers and
other adults in the learner’s environment
contribute to the process.
 they explain, model, assist, give
directions and provide feedback to the
learner. While peers, cooperate,
collaborate and enrich the learning
experience.
 LANGUAGE- this will open the door for
learners to acquire knowledge than others
already have. They use the language to
understand the world and solve problems.
- It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his
own thinking.
- children talk to themselves. Observe the
preschoolers play and you may hear, “Gagawin
ko itong airplane tapos ito ang airport.”
- for Vygotsky the “talking-to-oneself” is an
indication of the thinking that goes on in the
mind of the child.
 this will eventually lead to PRIVATE SPEECH- a
form of self-talk that guides the child’s
thinking and action.
 Vygotsky believed in the essential role of
activities in learning. Children learn better
thru hands-on activities than passive
listening.
 learning by doing is made more fruitful when
children interact w/ knowledgeable adults
and peers.
 ZONE OF ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT- child
attempts to perform a skill alone, she
may perform at a certain level of
competency.
 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT-
child perform a skill w/ the guidance of
another expert/ knowledgeable adults or
peers. Zone represents a learning
opportunity where the knowledgeable
adults or advanced peers assist the
child’s development.
 SCAFFOLDING- refers to the support or
assistance and lets the child accomplish a
task she cannot accomplish
independently.
A way of bridging the gap bet. the
learner’s current skill levels and the
desired skill level.
 if scaffolding is done appropriately can
make the learner confident and
eventually accomplish the task
independently w/out any need for
assistance.
What is the teaching implication?
-teacher is a facilitator and guide, not a director;
establish many opportunities for children to
learn with the teacher and more skilled peers.
Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky’s Theories:
Constructivism- emphasizes that individuals
actively construct knowledge and
understanding. In the constructivist view,
information is not directly given to children
and adolescents and poured into their minds.
They are encouraged to explore their world,
discover knowledge and think critically.
cognitive constructivist approach- emphasis is
on the individual’s cognitive construction of
knowledge and understanding. (Piaget’s
theory is cognitive constructivist)

Social constructivist approach- emphasis is on

collaboration with others to produce
knowledge and understanding. (Vygotsky’s
theory is social constructivist )
 KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG believed that children
form ways of thinking thru their experiences
w/c include understanding of moral concepts
such as justice, rights, equality and human
welfare.
 he utilized moral dilemmas-KOHLBERG
DILEMMA
 he presented 6 stages of moral reasoning and
grouped into 3 major levels.
1. PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL- moral reasoning
is based on the consequence/result of the
act, not on whether the act itself is good or
bad.
Stage 1 – Punishment/ Obedience. One is
motivated by fear of punishment. He will act
in order to avoid punishment.
Stage 2- Mutual Benefit. One is motivated
to act by the benefit that one may obtain
later. “ you scratch my back, I’ll scratch
yours.”
2. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL- moral reasoning is
based on the conventions or norms of society.
These may include approval of others, law and
order.
Stage 3- Social Approval- one is motivated by
what others expect in behavior- good boy,
good girl. The person acts because he/she
values how he/she will appear to others.
He/she gives importance on what people will
think or say.
 Stage 4- Law and Order- one is motivated to
act in order to uphold law and order. The
person will follow the law because it is the
law.
3. POST-CONVENTIONAL- moral reasoning is
based on enduring or consistent principles. It
is not just recognizing the law but the
principles behind the law.
Stage 5- Social Contract- laws that are
wrong can be changed. One will act based
on social justice and the common good.
 Stage 6- Universal Principles- associated w/
the dev’t of one’s conscience. Having a set of
standards that drives one to possess moral
responsibility to make societal changes
regardless of consequences to oneself.
- ex. Identify the stage of moral development.
1. Joy allows her classmates to copy her
homework so that they will think she is kind
and will like her to be their friend.
2. Lyka wears her ID inside the campus
because she likes to follow the
school rules and regulations.
3. A civic action group protests the
use of pills for family planning,
saying that although the
government allows this it is actually
murder because the pills are
abortifacient( causes abortion).
What is the teaching implication?
- Teachers should offer more opportunities for
debate about issues so students can hear a
variety of perspectives.
- view issues from a global perspective-how do
other cultures look at these issues?
- students must hear a variety of views so that
they may decide what is right and wrong.
 Individual Differences
 Everyone is unique
 Factors that bring about student diversity
A. Socioeconomic status- lifestyle
B. Thinking/Learning style- some students
learn better by seeing- visual, others by
listening- auditory, others by
manipulating something- kinesthetics
C. Exceptionalities- Exceptional learners
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner- 9 kinds of intelligences
1. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)-
learning visually and organizing ideas
spatially. Ability to see things in one’s mind in
planning to create a product or solve a
problem.
2. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart)- learning
through the spoken and written word.
3. Mathematical/Logical (number smart/logic
smart)- learning through reasoning and
problem solving.
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart)- learning
through interaction w/ one’s environment.
5. Musical (Music Smart)- learning through
patterns, rhythms and music.
6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart)- learning through
feelings, values and attitudes.
7. Interpersonal (People Smart)- learning
through interaction w/ others.
8. Naturalist (Nature Smart)- learning
through classification, categories and
hierarchies. Study of nature.
9. Existential (Spirit Smart)- learning
by seeing the big picture- why are we
here, what is my role in the world?
Or seeking connections to the real
world.
 Academic Difficulties
1. Learning Disabilities- disabilities involve
difficulties in cognitive processes like
perception, language, memory or
metacognition. Not due to other disabilities
like mental retardation, emotional or
behavioural disorders or sensory impairments.
ex. Dyslexia – difficulty in reading
Dyscalculia – number operations
Dysgraphia- writing
2. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)- difficulty in focusing and maintaining
attention, hyperactive and impulsive behaviour.
3. Speech and Communication Disorders.
Difficulty in spoken language including voice
disorders, inability to produce the sounds
correctly, stuttering.
4. Emotional/Conduct Disorders. The presence of
emotional states like depression and aggression
over a considerable amount of time that notably
disturb learning and performance in school.
5. Autism- impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviours and
limited interests.
6. Mental retardation. Difficulty in managing
activities of daily living and in conducting
themselves appropriately in social situations.
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments:
1. Visual impairments
2. hearing impairments
3. Giftedness
 What is People-First Language?
- Involves putting the person first, not the
disability ( ex. A person with disability , not a
disabled person).
 avoiding generic labels- people w/ mental
retardation is preferable than mentally
retarded.
 emphasizing abilities, not limitations. Ex.,
uses wheelchair is preferable than confined
to a wheelchair.
 avoiding implying illness or suffering . Had
polio is preferable than polio victim, Has
multiple sclerosis is preferable

Using people-first language remind us to have

a more respectful and accepting attitude
toward learners with exceptionalities.
 Beginning with the right attitude will make
you a more effective teacher, one with the
hand and heart who can facilitate their
learning and adjustment.
 Focus on Learning
-Behaviourist Perspective- PAVLOV, THORNDIKE,
WATSON and SKINNER
Pavlov- famous of his work in classical
conditioning or stimulus substitution.
Skinner – he believed in the stimulus-response
pattern of conditioned behaviour. He is
famous on his Operant conditioning-changes
in beh are the result of an individual’s
response to events(stimuli) that occur in the
environment.
 Basic Theories of Learning
1. Classical Conditioning- is a stimulus substitution
through association, an adhesive principle.
ex. A child experiences pain and fear as a result of
having his body or other part of it injected with a
sharp needle. Fear becomes conditioned to
various cues such as the sight of a needle/
hospital/ doctor or nurses.
Conditioned stimulus- sight of a
needle/hospital/doctor
Conditioned response- fear the child develop after
the experience.
2. Operant Conditioning- learning through
consequences, focus on the
consequences of a response.
- if the consequences are rewarding the
response will be repeated and will
increase in strength.
- the relationship between response and
reward is the essence of operant
conditioning. The act /response is
regulated because of the reward.
 Operant conditioning is also referred as
instrumental conditioning because the
organism’s response is instrumental in
gaining some rewards.
Operant – indicates that the organism operates
on its environment to generate rewards or to
reach some goals, such as high grades or etc.
 - Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s
S-R theory
- A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the
desired response.
- Either be positive reinforcer and negative
reinforcer
- Positive reinforcer- any stimulus that is given
or added to increase the response. Ex. The
teacher promises to give extra points to
students who behave well during the lesson.
- Negative reinforcer- is any stimulus that
results in the increased of frequency of a
response when it is withdrawn or removed.
- negative reinforcer is not a punishment, it is a
reward. Example- the teacher announces that
a student who gets an average of 1.5 for the
two grading periods, will no longer take the
final examination.
- Punishment- is a consequence intended to
result in reduced responses.
- Example – a student who always comes
late is not allowed to join a group work.
This was done to reduce the response of
repeatedly coming to class late.
- responses that are not reinforced are
not likely to be repeated. Like ignoring a
student’s misbehaviour may extinguish
that behaviour.
Implications of Operant Conditioning
1. Requires that the learner makes a
response for every questions asked by
the teacher and receives immediate
feedback.
2. Ensure that good performance in the
lesson is paired with secondary
reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes
and good grades.
-Thorndike- learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between stimulus
and response is formed. He came up w/ his
three primary laws:
1. law of Effect- connection bet. a stimulus
and response is strengthened when the
consequence is positive (reward).
performance.
2. Law of Exercise- the more S-R bond is
practiced the stronger it will become.
“ Practice makes perfect”- but should be
provided w/ feedback , it is necessary to
enhance performance.
3. Law of Readiness- the more readiness the
learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond bet. them.
- It further explains that if person is not ready to
respond to a certain stimulus and is asked to
respond, it becomes annoying.

Applications:
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards
(laws of effect and rewards)
2. A series of stimulus- response connections
can be chained together if they belong to the
same action sequence (law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of
previously encountered situations.

4. Intelligence is a function of the number

of connections learned.
 Albert Bandura’s Social Learning
theory
 Focuses on the learning that occurs within a
social context. It means that people learn
from one another, including concepts such as
observational learning, imitation and
modelling.
 General principles of social learning theory:

1. People can learn by observing the behaviour

of others and the outcomes of those
behaviours.
2. Learning can occur without a change in
behaviour.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Social
learning theory has become cognitive in its
interpretation of human learning.
 Awareness and expectations of the
reinforcements or punishments can have a
major effect on the behaviours that people
exhibit.

4. Social learning theory can be considered a

bridge or a transition between behaviourist
learning theories and cognitive learning
theories.
For behaviourist, learning has to be
represented by a permanent change in
behaviour.
While social learning theorists say that
because people can learn through
observation alone, their learning may
not necessarily be shown in their
performance.
 learning may or may not result in a
behaviour change.
- According to Bandura, people are often
reinforced for modeling the behaviour of
others.
- the observer is reinforced by the model.
- the observer is reinforced by a third person.
The observer might be modeling the actions
of someone else.
- the imitated behaviour itself leads to
reinforcing consequences. Many behaviours
that we learn from others produce satisfying
or reinforcing results.
 COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: Gestalt
Psychology
 it is considered as the mental processes and
products of perception.
 Gestalt means “form or configuration”
 learners are not passive but active, they
collect information and actively process and
restructure data in order to understand it.
 Factors like past experiences, needs,
attitudes and one’s present situation can
affect his perception.
 Principles or Laws
 Principles or laws determine on what we see or
make of things or situations we meet.
 Law of Proximity- distance
 Law of Similarity
 Law of Closure- fill the gaps or close the figures
to be able to perceive the real image.
 Law of Continuation- establish pattern/
direction
 Law of Pragnanz- symmetry, simplicity and
regularity
 Law of Figure and Ground
- individual has inner and outer forces that
affect his/her perceptions and learning.
- inner forces include his own motivation,
attitudes and feelings
-outer forces include the attitude and
behaviour of teacher and classmates.
- All these forces interact and impact on
the person’s learning.
DAGHANG
SALAMAT!