03 Chapter 2 New Methods of Modern Logging and Geological Application

Chapter two New methods of modern logging and
Geological Application
油气测井新方法及地质应用
The principle and geological application of some new methods will
be introduced in this Chapter. Such as, Litho-Density Log , Natural
Gamma Spectral Log , Neutron Gamma Spectral Log , Nuclear Magnetic
Resonace Log ( NMR ) , Microelectrical Scanner Log , Electromagnetic
Propagation Log and so on. These logs give us much more information
about reservoir lithology and fluids , can be used to do analysis of
reservoir geology and development behavior (开发动态）
除了常规测井以外，近年来出现一些新的测井方法，在这些测
井方法中：岩性密度测井，自然伽玛能谱测井，中子伽玛能谱测井，
核磁测井，电磁波测井等对储层岩性，流体、开发动态及油藏分析
提供了有用的信息。
Section 1 Litho-Density Log and Application
岩性密度测井及地质应用
1 Principles (原理)
Litho-Density Log was a new log method concerned with density log, was
developed in the 70s. The basic principle is related to the density log.
As is known to all, Middle -low energy (0.25-2.5Mev ) gamma ray are emitted
from artifical chemical source (usually Cesium137 – 铯 or cobaltum60 –钴60 ) into
formation, and collide with the electrons of the element in the formation. “Compton-
Woo scattering effect-康吴散射效应” will be token place. That is , electrons around
nuclei(原子核）will obtain exta-enegy from gamma quantum (伽马量子)，and
deviate from the orbit (偏离运行轨道). In the mean time, enegy of gamma ray will
be decreased and scattered , and direction of going will be changed. The gamma ray
scattered will continue to collide with electrons of the element in the formation, until
“electrooptical effect”(光电效应) take place.
在密度测井中，中等能量的伽玛射线（<1.05×10-13焦尔的铯源/钴60）照射地层岩石，γ射线与地层中电子
产生康～吴散射，一方面会降低γ射线能量，降低的能量转移到电子身上，使电子脱离原运行轨道（但未脱离电子
壳层）。另一方面被散射γ射线改变运行方向，并与其它原子中的电子继续碰撞。当γ光子能量降到一定能量以后，
就会将全部能量交给电子，使电子飞出电子壳层，这个过程称之为：光电效应。
“Electrooptical effect”：when gamma ray collide with electrons of
the element in the formation, if the all energy of gamma ray is transferred
to the electrons , So, this will make electrons to fly out of electron
shell .this phenomenon, we call “Electrooptical effect”
The physical base of density log is Compton-Woo scattering
effect ; and the physical base of Litho-Density Log is Compton-Woo
scattering effect and electrooptical effect.
Litho-Density Log can be used to determine formation porosity and
indicate lithology.
光电效应：当γ射线与电子碰撞，γ射线把全部能量转交给电子，而使
电子从电子壳层中飞出。这种吸收γ射线的现象称为--光电效应）。
密度测井的物理基础是康-吴散射效应。
岩性密度测井的物理基础是康-吴散射效应和光电效应(electrooptical
effect)，该测井方法即可确定地层孔隙度，又可指示岩性。
Under the condition that formation bulk density (ρb ) and photoelectric cross
section index ( Pe ) have known, the curve of energy spectrum of gamma ray detected
by litho-density log tool is like as follow figure shown.
There is a peak on the location of 150 keV on the horizon scale axis. The intensity
of gamma ray will decrease with the increase of energy on the region of greater than
150 kev. The intensity of gamma ray will drastically decrease as to electrooptical
effect on the region of less than 150 kev.
在给定地层密度ρb和
光电吸收截面指数Pe的条
150kev Affected by 件下，岩性密度测井仪探
electrooptical effect
测器所测得的伽吗射线能
谱曲线如图所示。
Counting rate
Affected by
Compton-Woo cattering effect 在150keV处有一个峰，
在高于150kev的区域、伽
马射线的强度随能量的增
加而降低；在低于150kev
的区域，由于光电吸收作
Energy, kev 用，伽马射线的强度随着
能量的降低而急剧地下降。
Gamma ray counting rate either on the high energy spectrum
window ( it is function of electron density ρe ) or on the lower energy
spectrum window ( it is function of photoelectric cross section index - Pe
and electron density- ρe ) will be measured in Litho-Density Log.
150kev 因此在岩性密度测
Affected by
electrooptical effect
井中，既测量高能谱段
Counting rate
Affected by 的伽吗计数率（它是电
Compton-Woo cattering effect
子密度的函数）NH，又
测量低能谱段的伽吗计
数率（它是Pe和电子密
Energy, kev
度的函数)Ns
Photoelectric cross section index – Pe will be calculated by use
follow formula:
NS NH 0
Pe  Pe 0  A log(  )
NH NS 0
Pe : Photoelectric cross section index ; unit is b / electron ;
N H: Gamma ray counting rate on the high energy spectrum window
( it is function of electron density ρe );
N S: Gamma ray counting rate on the lower energy spectrum window
( it is function of photoelectric cross section index - Pe and electron
density- ρe );
Pe0 , NH0/NS0 : The parameters measured on the given formation (已知地
层）in the calibration (刻度） well ;
A : Obtained by experiment in lab.
Litho-Density Log is the method to measure Photoelectric cross

section index (Pe).
岩性密度测井主要测量的就是有效光电吸收截面指数Pe的测井方法
The section ( 截面 ) in physics was expressed as the degree
absorbed by electron for gamma ray.γ光子能量被电子所吸收的程度，物
理学上用截面来表示。
Therefore, the section (截面) : probability which an incident (入射）
gamma ray collides with a target atom per unit area ,and makes
reaction . The section has area dimension (面积量纲），unit： 1b = 10-
24cm2. 截面：一个入射光子与单位面积上一个靶原子发生作用的几率，截面具
有面积量纲，单位：巴（1巴(b)=10-24cm2）
Photoelectric cross section was expressed as τ. Generally,
probability which middle – low energy gamma ray collides with target
atom and makes “Electrooptical effect” is proportional to the atomic
number (原子序数，Z）。 That is:
τ∝ Z4.6 , Z: atomic number (原子序数）,unit: electron/atom
光电吸收截面用τ表示。通常中低强度的伽玛射线与原子发生光电效应的几率
与原子序数成正比。即 τ∝Z4.6 Z为元素的原子序数。（电子/原子）；
That is , a equation (等式）can be written as follow :
τ=k·Z4.6
k is a coefficient concerned with energy of incident gamma ray. τ
Photoelectric cross section , unit is b/atom.
Effective Photoelectric Cross Section Index can be defined as :
Pe = τ / Z = k ·Z3.6
If it takes tool calibration coefficient as k = 10 -3.6 , that will be :
Pe = (Z/10)3.6 unit is : b / electron
k为与入射γ射线能量有关的系数；τ为光电吸收截面。（巴
/原子）
定义Pe为有效光电吸收截面指数： Pe=τ/Z=k·Z3.6
在测量时，若仪器刻度取k=10-3.6,则: Pe=(Z/10)3.6 单
位：巴/电子
Pe is very sensitive to the formation
lithology because Effective Photoelectric
Cross Section Index rely strongly on the
atomic number (原子序数，Z）. Therefore,
Pe can be used to determine lithology . Pe
Generally, two parameters will be

provided by Litho-Density Log , one is bulk
density （ρb），another is Pe.
由于有效光电吸收截面指数（Pe）与物质
的原子序数有很强的依赖关系，因此，Pe对
地层的岩性极为敏感，可用来区分岩性。
A new parameter should be defined since Pe can not be used in
volume model to build log interpretation model. For the reason, A new
parameter U ( Bulk Photoelectric Cross Section Index ) has been defined as
follow:
U= Pe × ρe unit : b / cm3
ρe : electron density, electron / cm3 ; ρe =（ρb+0.1883）/1.0704
Pe : Effective Photoelectric Cross Section Index , b / electron
U : Bulk Photoelectric Cross Section Index , b / cm3
Thus, Bulk photoelectric cross section index (U) can follow the
volume model, and write the following formula:
U=ФT·Uf+（1-ФT）·Uma
Uma - Bulk photoelectric cross section index of formation matrx；
Uf - Bulk photoelectric cross section index of fluid ；
ФT - Formation total porosity ；
In formula : U=ФT·Uf+（1-ФT）·Uma , item φT·Uf can be
neglected due to Uf is much smaller than Uma ( Uf << Uma ). hereby:
U=（1-ФT）·Umaa
Umaa≌U/（1-Фta）
Umaa - Bulk photoelectric cross section index of apparent formation
matrx (视骨架体积光电吸收宏观截面指数).
Фta - Apparent formation total porosity (视总孔隙度).

Section 1 Litho-Density Log and Application
岩性密度测井及地质应用
2 Application (应用)
Litho-Density Log was used to identify
lithology by using Pe curve, or using cross
plot of ρb-ФN and ρb- Pe .
Procedure:
plot the points on the

crossplot. The relative
mineral percentages are
inversely proportional to the
distance from each mineral
vertex. Points lying along a
line between two minerals
will be composed of those
two minerals only, with none
of the third mineral present.
Section 2 Natural Gamma Spectral Log and Application
自然伽玛能谱测井及地质应用
The response of the normal gamma ray log is made up of the
combined radiation from uranium, thorium, potassium. Because these
different radioactive elements emit gamma rays at different energy
levels, the radiation contributed by each element can be analyzed
separately. Potassium (K 40) has a single energy of 1.46 MeV (million
electron volts). The thorium and uranium series emit radiation at
various energies; however, they have prominent energies at 2.614
MeV (Th232) and 1.764 MeV (U238). By using energy selective sensor
( 传感器）windows, the total gamma ray response can be separated
into the gamma rays related to each of these elements.
Figure illustrates one format
used to display output from the
spectral gamma ray log.
In addition to the individual
elements shown in tracks 3 ～ 5,
the spectral ganuna ray data can
be displayed in track 1 as total
gamma radiation (SGR-dashed
curve) and total gamma radiation
minus uranium ( CGR-solid
curve ).
Symbol：
SGR: Total gamma ray ( dashed curve, track 1)
CGR: Total gamma ray minus uranium (solid curve, track 1)
POTA: Potassium 40 in weight percent ( track 3 )
URAN: Uranium in ppm ( track 4 )
THOR: Thorium in ppm ( track 5 )
2 Geological Application (应用)
（1）Determining shale (clay) volume (Vshale) in sandstone reservoirs
that contain uranium minerals, potassium feldspars, micas, and/or
glauconite
We always use CGR ( total gamma radiation minus uranium ) 、
Thorium and Potassium curve to calculate shale content Vsh accurately
Vsh=（CGR - CGRmin）/（CGRmax - CGRmin）

（Vsh）Th=（Th - Thmin）/（Th max - Th min ）
（Vsh）K= （K - Kmin）/（ Kmax – Kmin ）
2 Geological Application (应用)
（2） Determining clay types and clay content.
Potassium evaporites
The cross plot of potassium against thorium content will
be used to identify clay mineral types and clay content.
A set of equation will be solved to calculate clay content,
under the condition of known clay type, as follow:
Th= ThGaolinite×VGaolinite+ Thmontmorillonite ×Vmontmorillonite
K =KGaolinite×VGaolinite+ Kmontmorillonite× Vmontmorillonite

自然伽吗能
谱TH--K交会图。
表明，交会点
主要集中在混
合粘土、伊利
石区域。
说明该井段
内泥岩粘土类
型主要是层状
分布的伊蒙混
合物。准噶尔盆地腹部地区庄103井侏罗
纪三工河组（4202.0—4460.0m）
海绿石
黑云母绿泥石
白云母
蒙脱石
海绿石
黑云母
绿泥石
蒙脱石
白云母
（3） Making analysis of sedimentary environments on the basis of
clay type studied in combination with value of ratio thorium to uranium
(Th/U). 在Th/K研究粘土类型的基础上，结合Th/U进行环境分析。
Generally:
If Th / U > 7, known as continent oxidation environment （陆上氧
化环境）;
If Th / U < 7, known as marine deposit ，as to : gray green
mudstone, apogrite ( 杂砂岩 ) deposit;
If Th / U < 2, known as marine shale deposit with dark color and
phosphate rock ( 磷酸盐类 ) deposit;
If Th / U = 7, known as the position of coastline (海岸线位置);
Th / U contour will be drawn to help us to analyze the position of
coastline and the change of sedimentary environment. Further, to
analyze paleogeographic ( 古地理） and palaeoclimatic （古气候）
features.
（4） Differentiating source rock from mudstone interval using U
and Th curve due to richness of elements of U and Th in source rock.
A statistic relation between U/K and TOC(%) (total organic carbon)
will be obtained by regression analysis ( 回归分析），and be used
to calculate TOC(%) by using the statistic model.
利用U，Th曲线可在泥岩段识别生油岩。一般而言，生油岩
中的干酪根富含U，Th元素，故可以用U，Th曲线识别生油岩，
另外用U/K与TOC%进行回归，从而得用U/K值在生油岩段可以计
算TOC%。
( 5 ) Inferring fracture interval by using difference
between U curve and（Vsh）CGR from overlap of U and
（Vsh）CGR curve.
The abnormal high U value will be appeared because
six valence (六价) uranium is ease to be dissolved in
water, and flown in fracture,
采用U曲线与（Vsh）GRS重迭，对离差大的异常段可推断为裂隙段。
因为六价铀易溶于水，随水在裂隙中流动，而显示出异常的U值。
Section 3 Neutron Gamma Spectral Log and Application
中子伽玛能谱测井及地质应用
Neutron gamma spectral log is based on the theory of neutron inelastic
scattering .
When fast neutron (energy >10 5 ev ) emitted went into formation, fast
neutron will collide with the nuclei of the formation, called as “inelastic and
elastic collision ”; Fast neutron will be changed into epithermal neutron (超
热中子), and thermal neutron (热中子); With enough collisions, the
neutron is absorbed （captured）by a nucleus and a gamma ray is emitted
(called as secondary gamma ray or capture gamma ray ).
when inelastic collision has been taken place, the neutron will be captured
temporarily (暂时地） by the nuclei. The nuclei captured neutron is in the
excited state ( 激发态 ), When the nuclei in the excited state return to
ground state (基态）， the nuclei will emit secondary gamma ray (that is
non-elastic scattering gamma rays )
Characteristics of energy spectrum of non-elastic scattering gamma
rays and capture gamma-ray for elements in the formation are very
different, So, we will use the Characteristics of energy spectrum of two
kinds of gamma ray to identify special elements in the formation, such as
carbon and oxygen .
Neutron gamma spectral log can measure energy spectrum of non-
elastic scattering gamma rays and capture gamma-ray from carbon ( C ) ,
oxygen ( O ), silicon (Si ), calcium (Ca )、hydrogen (H), chlorum (Cl ),
ferrum (Fe ) , sulphur (S ) and so on. But , the main output of parameters
are ratio carbon to oxygen (C/O) curve and ratio silicon to calcium curve.
So, Neutron gamma spectral log also can be called as ratio carbon to
oxygen (C/O) log. It can be used to identify and evaluate oil reservoir,
specially, to calculate reminded oil saturation in the stage of development.
2 Application ( 应用)
（1）To identify oil- and water- bearing formation， and to calculate
oil saturation (S0 ) . Generally, the C/O of oil-bearing formation is more
than or equal to 1.7, and C/O of water-bearing formation is about 1.6.
(C / O) log  (C / O) w
So 
(C / O) o  (C / O) w
（C/O）w - The ratio of (C/O) from water-bearing formation ；

（C/O）o - The ratio of (C/O) from oil-bearing formation ；
（C/O）log - The ratio of (C/O) from interesting formation；
2 Application ( 应用)
（2）To identify lithology. Generally, Si/Ca is high, and C/O is
relatively lower in clastic formation profile; On the contrary, Si/Ca is
lower, and C/O is relatively higher in carbonate formation profile.
C/O from sandstone oil-bearing formation is relatively higher,
and is lower in mudstone in clastic formation profile. But, When the
shale is rich in organic matter, the situation may be the opposite. Si/Ca
from sandstone is higher than that from mudstone.
( 3 ) the log method can be used to calculate TOC of source rock.
Section 4 Microelectrical Scanner Tool and Application
成像测井及地质应用
Borehole images are electronic pictures of the rocks and fluids encountered by
a wellbore. Such images are made by electrical devices which have been lowered
into the well. Images are oriented, they have high vertical and lateral resolution,
and they provide critical information about bedding dip, fractures, faults,
unconformities, paleocurrent directions, vuggy and fracture porosity, and other
geological features. Case studies have shown that borehole images are best used in
conjunction with other available wellbore data, such as other logs, cuttings, cores,
and production data.
Because of the high expense and risk, relatively few wells are now being cored.
Cores taken are generally short, so they may miss all or part of target formation. in
exploration wells, the depth to the target formation may even be unknown. Some
lithologies tend to have poor core recovery, such as fractured , and unconsolidated
sands intervals. In recent years, all of these factors have led to the increased use of
borehole images to characterize subsurface sedimentary rocks.
Microelectrical Scanner Tool is a new logging method developed on the
basis of diplog. The development of dipmeters with a larger number of
electrodes has laid the foundation for electrical imaging.
Micro-resistivity scan imaging tool can obtain micro-resistivity images
from the wall of the borehole, which has the resolution of 5mm in the mid-80s
last century.
Currently, three electrical borehole-imaging logging system exist:
(1) MAXIS500 from Schlumberger company;
(2) ECLIPS - 2000（5700）from Baker Huges company;
(3) EXCELL - 2000 from Halliburton company
electrical borehole-imaging logging system consist of the four parts:
(1) The ground instruments; (2) Cable transmission ; (3) Explained
Workstation; and (4) the tool in the borehole.
Currently, micro-electrical imaging is a method used in the most
commonly though there are many kinds of electrical borehole-imaging
methods . For the reason, we will introduce theprinciple of micro-electrical
imaging method .
Micro-electrical imaging is a wireline logging method based on the
dipmeter principle and producing a high-resolution electrical current map
of the borehole wall.
27 electrod buttons per pad ( 2 pads used, total 27 * 2 electrod
buttons ) were used to obtain image of borehole wall on the basis of
Schlumberger high-resolution dipmeter (SHDT) in the early (in 1988). It
has small wall coverage of 20% only.
早期的微电阻率扫描是在高分辨率地层倾角测量的基础上用27*2个电钮测量
的。对井壁的覆盖面积小（20%）；
Two rows of button electrods on the four pads were arranged from the
second-generation micro-resistivity imaging equipment. Total 16 of 8 button
electrods per row per pad, and total 64 button electrods from 4 pads were
mounted from the second-generation micro-resistivity imaging equipment. It
has wall coverage of 80% in 8 inch diameter borehole.
Recently, MAXIS-500 from Schlumberger company use 4 main pads,
which every main pad has a folding pad. Therefore, total 8 pads is for the
tool. 24 button electrods on each main and folding pad are mounted, total
194 button electrods are for the tool. It has wall coverage of 80% in 8 inch
diameter borehole. The vertical resolution is about 0.2 inch. The method was
called as FMI.
第二代微电阻率扫描仪器在4个极板上装有两排纽扣电极，每排8个共16
个电极，4个极板共64个。在8in井眼覆盖率达40%。
近年来，斯仑贝谢公司提供的 MAX1S一500成像测井仪器系列，用4个主
极板，4个折页极板，共8个极板，每个极板24个电钮，共192个电钮测量，对
井壁覆盖面积大（80%）。可获得0．2in的分辨率。这种方法我们称之为全井
眼地层微电阻率扫描FMI，
FMS consists of four hydraulic pads pushed on the wall.
Two measuring electrode buttons and one speeding
electrode button are designed on the No.1and No.2 pads; A
set of micro resistivity scanning electrode button is designed
on the No.3 and No.4 pads except two measuring electrode
buttons. It consists of 27 electrode buttons, which it is of
0.2 inch in diameter.
Electrode buttons are divided into four rows vertically.
Six buttons are located on the first row, seven buttons are
located on another three rows. Two pads of FMS are
coverage of about 20% on the wall of borehole in 8 ½ inch
diameter of borehole.
由四个液压推靠极板组成。
1号与2号极板上有两个测量电极和一个速度电极；
3号和4号极板除保留测量电极外，还增设了一组微电阻率扫描电极。它由27
个直经为0.2in的小电极组成。
钮扣电极在纵向上分成四排，第一排为6个电极，其余3排均为7个电极。在8
1/2 in 的井眼中，两个微电阻率扫描极板对井壁的覆盖范围约为20％。
FMI consists of four arms, every arm consists of a main
pad and a folding pad.
The electrodes array of 24 buttons is mounted on each
main pad and folding pad. The vertical resolution of 0.2 inch
can be obtained.
The four arms is pushed on to the wall of borehole during
the tool is running in the borehole. Folding pads can fit shape
of borehole automatically after opened. Every pad can be in
close contact with wall of borehole.
total 192 electrode buttons are mounted on the pads of 8.
which consist of metal button of 0.16 inch in diameter and
insulating loop of 0.24 inch in diameter . This kind of
configuration is conducive to ( 有利于） signal focus.
FMI有四个臂，每个臂上有一个主极板和一个折页极板。
每个主极板和折页极板上各装有24个钮扣电极阵列，可获得0．2in分辨率。
测井时弹簧和液压系统使主电极紧贴井壁，折页极板打开后，能自动适应井眼形状。各个极板
能和井壁紧密接触。
8个极板上共有192个传感器，都是由直径为0．16in的金属钮扣，外加0．24in的绝缘环组成。
这样的结构有利于信号聚焦。
two images recorded with the first

experimental electrical imaging

The first electrical images, recorded in the mid-
1980s with an experimental one pad device, created
excitement. Never before had a logging measurement
provided such detailed and obvious geological features.
Bedding, faulting and fracturing were, for the first time
tool (right)
in logging history, visible and did not have to be
inferred （推测） from dipmeters or other open-hole
well logs. The first comparisons of electrical images
with photographs of slabbed cores （岩芯切片）
slabbed core (left)

turned out to be good matches (被证明是), although
there were obvious discrepancies （差异） because of
the differing physical principles. Electrical borehole
imaging comes indeed very close to “ electrical
coring ”.
two images recorded with the first

experimental electrical imaging

The interpretation methods for borehole
images are different from dipmeters. Bedding
surfaces can be directly observed and their dips
can be measured selectively for each type of
bedding interface. This is the inverse of dipmeter
tool (right)
interpretation, where dips have to be measured first,
and then geological structures are inferred . The
greatest difference lies in the visualization of
slabbed core (left)

sedimentary features, which instill （逐渐灌输）
confidence in the geologist doing the interpretation
and reduces the uncertainty in the geological
model he builds
（1） Bedding analysis:
This is perhaps the most important contribution of electrical
borehole images to the geologist. Two principal aspects are
distinguished: Zonation into bedding types （划分层理类型）, and
quantification of bed boundaries.
Bedding types are expressed on borehole images through their
image texture. While texture in rocks commonly refers to microscopic
properties, in image analysis it describes regions with characteristic
brightness, colors, slopes, or sizes of the image elements. Textural
image segmentation is a process done by the brain at an early stage in
the analysis of visual scenes, prior to object recognition and scene
analysis.
Comparisons of borehole images with slabbed cores show that

the image texture correlates with bedding types, although there are
differences due to the two different physical processes involved.
Therefore, a zonation into image textures effectively produces a
bedding zonation. This can be done visually on a paper plot or on a
workstation, or alternatively through an automated computational
procedure. The eye is a powerful image analyst, and the results from a
visual, interactive analysis are often of great reliability although they
take considerable time.
Among the deposilional bedding types that can be identified visually

from the images without much ambiguity (争议） are the following:
（A）Conglomerates, with the individual clasts ( 碎屑） often showing
up as resistive nodules (球状体), sometimes with imbrications (叠瓦状);
（B）Massive bedding in sandstones, carbonates, evaporites and igneous
rocks;
（C）Planar laminations (平面纹层） and cross-beds in sandstones and
carbonates;
（D）Graded bedding, often expressed by a resistivity gradient;
（E）Interbeds of sandstones and shales, whereby the lower limit of the
beds resolved of given by the tool resolution;
（F）silt / mud laminations, but also foliations (片理） in metamorphic
rocks, if their spacing is above the tool resolution
The following structures caused by syn- and post-depositional

deformation, biogenic and chemical action can also be identified on borehole
images:
( A ) Deformed bedding due to dewatering (脱水), slumping and other
mass flow types;
( B ) Bioturbation;
( C ) Rootlets (根系构造）;
( D ) Mudcracks （泥裂）；
( E ) Concretions （结核）such as anhydrite nodules, dolomitized
zones etc.
( F ) Pressure solution features such as stylolites （缝合线）；
( G ) Secondary porosity such as vugs, karstic （岩溶的，喀斯特）
features, collapse breccias etc.
Various examples of
bedding types on electrical
borehole images (all FMI).
From upper left to lower
right:
A conglomerate in a
debris flow;
rip-up clasts in a fluvial
channel fill;
Thin cross-beds in a
tidal sandstone;
burrowing in a
carbonate/clastic mixed
shelf deposit;
overturned （包卷）
sand layers in a slump;
stylolites in a limestone.
Bar on left of images
corresponds to one meter.
Example of quantification of bed
boundaries on FMI image.
Cross-beds (in green) dip towards
east and northeast, while bounding
surfaces (in blue) show low dips with
scattered azimuths. Red curve in right
track is conductivity and indicates
interdune deposits where it reads low,
particularly in the lower half.
Core
FMI image to illustrate geological texture.

Trough cross-bedding fromfluvial facies in
TaZhong oil field of China.
Vertical meandering
river depositional sequence
determined by using the
methods of bedding
zonation and quantification
of bed boundaries on FMI
image. The example from
T2 well of TaZhong oil
field in China.
塔中油田T2井FMI成像
图上一个典型的曲流河垂
向序列地质解释。
horizontal bedding Thin interbed massive bedding Cross bedding
水平层理薄互层块状层理交错层理
（2） Fracture analysis:
Fracture show up (显而易见; 使显示出) on electrical images bacause their
resistivities often greatly fromm those of the host rock. In the case of open fractures,
the drilling mud typically invades the fracture, creating a thin, conductive sheet. By
contrast, a completely cemented fracture forms a thin resistive sheet. In both cases, the
current line are stronly modified compared to a uniform medium.
For a cenmented dipping fracture, the current lines get squeezed (挤压） when
the tool is just below and in front of the fracture, give rise to (引起） an artificially
(人为地） high resistivity. Conversely, as soon as the tool has passed the fracture, the
current lines diverge (发散）stronger than they would otherwise (其它场合）, and
the apparent resistivity is lower than it should be. The fracture itself is too thin to be
measured directly by the tools. The overall effect is thus a change in resistivity from
one side to the other of the fracture, which give rise to a halo-effect (环晕效应）on
the image. This effect is mirrored on the opposite side of the borehole, where almost
the exact inverse electrical distortions occur.
Micro-electrical image of a cemented
fracture at the top, showing characteristic
halo-effects due to the insulating thin
sheet formed by the fracture cement. The
lower feature shows the same halo effect,
but layers are displaced (有位移）,
suggesting a fault. Depth is in meters.
Open fractures, when filled with
conductive mud, are easily identified on
electrical borehole images as conductive
features cross-cutting the bedding (figure),
although in rare cases they may be layer-
paralled (尽管在少数情况下，它们可能是层
平行 ).
Figure is a FMI image over a layered

carbonate sequence with at least two
distinct planar fracture sets, on dipping
towarss SSW, the other dipping steeply
towards NNE.
Section 5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonace Log (NMR) and
Geological Application 核磁共振测井及地质应用
5.1 Introduction (简介)
Conventional porosity and resistivity logs provide the geologist with
a first look at the reservoir, but there are practical limits to the accuracy
and usefulness of these data. Neutron, density, and sonic porosities are
more sensitive to lithology than to reservoir fluids (this is not always the
case in a gas-bearing formation). As a result, even small amounts of clay
minerals may cause errors in porosity measurements. In addition,
reservoirs commonly contain clay-bound, capillary bound, and
moveable water. Resistivity tools are sensitive to all water, and Archie
water-saturation calculations can overestimate the amount of producible
（可生产的） water. Thus, potential pay zones might remain elusive
（难以捉摸） with conventional logs.
Porosity measurements with neutron-density combinations provide
an estimate of total porosity, which is all the pore space in the reservoir
whether the pores are interconnected or isolated. Still, with volume of
shale (Vshale) corrections, it is possible to mostly eliminate the shale
effect and arrive at an estimate of effective porosity or producible pore
space. What remains to be resolved in this situation is the critical (临界
的、关键的）difference between any capillary-bound water and
moveable water. Furthermore (而且、此外）, porosity and resistivity logs
provide few clues about other petrophysical information such as
hydrocarbon type (e.g., low-viscosity versus high-viscosity oils), pore-
size and grain-size distributions, and permeability.
Nuclear magnetic resonance is rapidly gaining popularity in the
petroleum industry as a means of overcoming the limitations of
conventional logs. The primary advantages of NMR over conventional
porosity measurements are that it uses no nuclear (radioactive) sources and
it provides a “lithology-independent” measure of porosity. Much like the
neutron tool, an NMR tool responds to the amount of hydrogen in the
formation or hydrogen index. However, unlike the neutron measurement,
hydrogen existing in matrix and clay minerals is transparent（透明的） to
the NMR porosity measurement. The result is a porosity measurement that
is sensitive only to fluids occupying the pore space. Other petrophysical
information may be deduced from the manner in which hydrogen protons
react to magnetic fields created by the tool.
At the wellsite, NMR tools are capable of providing measures of
both effective and clay-bound porosity (a combination of which yields
total porosity), estimates of permeability, and pore size distribution. In
many cases, the data obtained from NMR logs are in close agreement
with core data. Post processing of the data away from the well site,
incorporating conventional logs and capillary pressure data from core
analysis, may provide for a comprehensive evaluation of the uninvaded
zone.
+
+ ++
5.2 Principles (原理) + + +
NMR is the logging method used to measure free fluid content in

the formation, by using nuclear magnetic resonance phenomenon of
hydrogen proton.
Theoretical foundation of NMR: hydrogen proton magnetic spin
and its role in an external magnetic field under the precessional motion
( or relaxation) properties.
NMR是利用（氢－H）核具有核磁共振现象，来测量井中地层自由流体含量
变化的一种测井方法。
NMR的理论基础是：氢（H）原子核的磁（自旋）性及其在外加磁场作用下
的进动（或驰豫）特性。
5.2 Principles (原理) z Bo
Hydrogen nuclei with an odd number

of charge (hydrogen proton ) will produce
y
magnetic field due to spin. If there is no
x
external magnetic field , a single nuclear
magnetic moment is randomly oriented, so
there is no macro-magnetic.
带有奇数电荷的氢（H）原子核由于自旋会
产生磁场。如果没有外加磁场，单个核磁矩是
随机取向的，因此宏观上没有磁性。 Earth gravity field
When a nuclear magnetic moment

(力矩) is laid in an external magnetic field
y
B0, it will be forced to be precessional
x
motion around the direction of external
magnetic field . Precession frequency ω0=
γB0（γ- Gyromagnetic ratio 旋磁比）
当核磁矩处于外加磁场B0中时，它将受到
一个力矩的作用而绕外加磁场的方向进动。进
动频率ω0= γ B0（ γ-旋磁比） Earth gravity field
5.2 Principles (原理) Bo
z
In the external magnetic field B0, the
entire spin system of hydrogen proton
will be magnetized, this will produce a net
y
magnetic moment (μ) vector in the macro .
The sum of the nuclear magnetic moment x
(μi) of unit volume is called as

macroscopic magnetization ; that is :
M=Σμi
在外加磁场B0中，整个自旋系统将被磁化，
宏观上将产生一个净的磁力矩（ μ）矢量和。
单位体积内的核磁矩（ μ i ）之和叫宏观的
磁化量，即：M=Σμi。 Earth gravity field
In the external magnetic field B0, the
entire spin system of hydrogen proton will
be magnetized, this will produce a net y
magnetic moment (μ) vector in the macro . x
The sum of the nuclear magnetic moment (μi)

of unit volume is called as macroscopic
magnetization ; that is : M=Σμi
在外加磁场B0中，整个自旋系统将被磁化，
宏观上将产生一个净的磁力矩（ μ）矢量和。单
位体积内的核磁矩（ μ i ）之和叫宏观的磁化
量，即：M=Σ μi。 Earth gravity field
If a an alternating electromagnetic field B1 ,which frequency ω is
equal to the Precession frequency ω0 , is applied for the nuclear spin
system magnetized on the direction being perpendicular to the static
magnetic field B0. Then, according to quantum mechanics theory, the
nuclear magnetic moment in the low-energy state will absorb energy
provided by alternating electromagnetic field B1 , and jump into the
high-energy state. This phenomenon is known as “ nuclear magnetic
resonance ”.
对于被磁化后的核自旋系统，如果在垂直于静磁场B0的方向再加一个交变
电磁场B1，使其进动频率ω= ω0，那么根据量子力学原理，处于低能态的核磁
矩将通过吸收交变电磁场提供的能量，跃迁到高能态。这种现象即所谓的核磁
共振现象。
Commonly, alternating electromagnetic field is generated by the method
of radio frequency pulse (射频脉冲) . The magnetic spin system is in
equilibrium state before radio frequency pulse was applied. macroscopic
magnetization vector M and the static magnetic field B0 are in the same
direction. During the RF pulse was applied , the magnetization vector will
deviates from the static magnetic field direction by the role of alternating
electromagnetic field (在交变电磁场的作用下） ; When the RF pulse
applied stops, the magnetization vector will be built towards the direction of
B0 , so that equilibrium state in the low-energy state will be built from the
non-equilibrium state of the high-energy level . The process of return to
equilibrium is called as "relaxation."
交变电磁场一般采用射频脉冲法产生。在射频脉冲施加之前，自旋系统处
于平衡状态，宏观磁化矢量M与静磁场B0方向相同。在射频脉冲作用期间，磁
化矢量受交变电磁场的作用而偏离静磁场的方向；停止射频脉冲作用，磁化矢
量又将朝B0方向恢复，使核自旋从高能级的非平衡状态恢复到低能级的平衡状
态。这个恢复到平衡态的过程叫“弛豫”。
If the direction of B0 is for the Z direction, macroscopic
magnetization vector M can been broken down into component X-Y
plane (horizontal components) MXY, and Z direction component (vertical
component) MZ in the periods of the role of radio-frequency pulse .
若B0的方向为Z方向，射频脉冲作用期间，宏观的磁化量M被分解为X-Y平面
的分量（横向分量）MXY和Z方向分量（纵向分量） MZ 。
自由感应衰减信号
After the RF pulse finished, transverse component MXY
magnitude will build up toward the initial state of zero, known as the
transverse relaxation process, relaxation rate was represented as 1/T2,
T2 is called transverse relaxation time.
射频脉冲作用结束后，横向分量MXY往数值为零的初始状态恢复，称为横向弛
豫过程，弛豫速率用1/T2来表示， T2叫横向弛豫时间。
transverse relaxation
Longitudinal component MZ will build up toward the macroscopic
magnetization vector M , known as longitudinal relaxation process,
relaxation rate was represented as 1/T1, T1 is called longitudinal
relaxation time.
纵向分量 MZ 往宏观磁化强度方向恢复，称纵向弛豫过程，弛豫速率用1/T1
来表示， T1叫纵向弛豫时间。
longitudinal relaxation
5.3 Geological Application (应用)
1、To calculate porosity
The T2 time is proportional
to pore size. Therefore, T2
distribution curve can be seen
as the sum of all the size of the
pores.
The integration （积分）to T2 distribution curve, that is the area
surrounded by T2 curve，can be regarded as nuclear magnetic resonance
porosity (ΦNMR)
2. Quantification of bound and free fluids
By choosing an appropriate cut-off value ( TR ) on the T2 curve,
the small pores or micro-pore volume of water could be removed , and
the volume of free fluid FFI could be calculated as follow,.
通过选择一个合适的截止值TR ，可以区分开反映小孔隙或微孔隙水的体积，
即自由流体的体积FFI。
Capillary porosity Φcap or bound fluid porosity Φb can be obtained
by the above subtraction of ΦNMR and ΦFFI , or by directly the
integration （积分）on T2 distribution curve from Tmin to TR.
毛细管孔隙度Φb可以通过上面求得的ΦNMR和FFI相减来求得。或者直接
对T2分布中小于TR 的组分进行积分得到：
The quantification of these two
types of fluids is one of the main
applications of NMR logging. It is
based on the principle that fluids –
generally water – in the smaller pores
relax faster and thus have shorter T2
times. The threshold (门槛值）below
which fluids are bound by capillary
forces and therefore cannot be
produced has been determined with
laboratory and field experiments.
it is found to be typically around
33 ms for sandstones and around 100 to
200 ms for carbonates.
water contained in the interlayers of
clay minerals is ofen designated as clay -
bound and its hydrogens have even shorter
relaxation times, typically below 3 ms.
Hydrogens atoms in the minerals themselves
(such as in the hydroxyles – 羟基 of the clay
lattices – 晶格) have such short relaxation
times that they are usually well below the
detection limit of current NMR logging tools,
which is about T2 ≈ 0.2-0.5 ms.
3、To calculate permeability
One of the earliest suggested uses of NMR rock measurements was
the estimation of permeability (Seevers, 1966; Timnr, 1968; Loren &
Robinson, 1969; Loren, 1972). Relationships between porosity and
permeability had been investigated long before that, but they were
found to have a large scatter and to be rock-texture dependent. Wylie
& Rose (1950) proposed using the irreducible water saturation Swirr,
together with the porosity, in order to estimate permeability in a
general equation of the form:
Subsequently, several workers proposed specific forms of this

equation, usually based on laboratory data from rock samples (Timur,
1968; Coates & Dumanoir,1974).
3、To calculate permeability
With the advent (出现、来临）of NMR logging came a more
reliable way of estimating the irreducible water saturation, and more
work was done to refine the methodology.
Currently, two methods of estimating permeability from NMR logs
are in use. One is based on equation (1) and is called the Timur/Coates
equation. Instead of the irreducible water saturation it uses the bound
fluid index BVI, with the two related to each other through BVI = Ф*
Swirr , as well as the free fluid index FFI = (Ф * (1- Swirr ) . The equation
reads
Equation (1)
with a = 1 mD.
The second equation (2) was developed by researchers at
Schlumberger-Doll Research in Ridgefield (USA) and uses the logarithm
of the average transverse relaxation time T2, together with the NMR-
derived porosity. The SDR equation has the form
Equation (2)
b = 4 mD / (ms)2
The two relationships are somewhat similar and strongly dependent

on the total porosity. The Timur/Coates equation has the advantage of
applicable even if a strong bulk relaxation signal in the high T2 range is
which shifts the mean relaxation time towards higher values. The SDR
equation, on the other hand, avoids having to determine a free-fluid
cutoff. In cases both permeability estimates are made and shown on the
same plot.
Figure contains an example of NMR-
derived permeability using equation (2)
together with volumetric estimates of
fluids and minerals based on all open -
hole logs. The well is from a clastic
sequence in the Gulf of Mexico and lies
in a mostly depleted fields (枯竭油田).
Among the zone with higher T2 times the
lowermost interval is mostly water- filled,
perhaps caused by the waterflood, while
the upper, thinner zones seem to contain
producible oil although their NMR-
derived permeabilities are somewhat
lower. Subsequent tesing confirmed this
interpretation. The figure also shows a
good match between NMR-derived and
core- measured permeabilities and water
saturation.
4、To calculate saturation
Tmin TR To Tmax
5、pore size distribution
Longitudinal and transverse relaxation time is different as the
longitudinal and transverse relaxation produced by different physical
mechanisms. Generally, longitudinal and transverse relaxation time are
related to pore size and pore distribution. 由于纵、横向驰豫产生的物理学机理不同，因而
纵、横向驰豫时间是不同的。纵向驰豫时间T1主要与表面驰豫和体积驰豫有关；而横向驰豫时间T2，除了与表面驰
豫和体积驰豫有关以外，还与扩散驰豫有关。虽然T2和T1均与孔隙大小有关，但是T2更能反映孔隙大小和分布。
Three carbonate rock samples
whose pore size distribution was
quantified with digital petrographic
image analysis (bar plots) and NMR
T2 measurements (line plots). Notice
good match when unimodal pore size
distributions are present (upper two
samples), while poly-modal sample
presents a more difficult comparison
(bottom) .
孔喉半径（ μm ）
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
25 45
压汞孔喉半径分布 40
20 核磁共振T2分布 35
%）
30
孔喉半径频率（
15
T 2 频率（% ）
25
20
10
15
5 10
0 0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
T2（ms）
核磁共振 T 2 分布和压汞孔喉半径分布对比图
A tight sandstone sample whose pore size distribution curve was

quantified with mercury-injection method (dot line- green ) and NMR
T2 measurements (red line). Notice poly-modal pore size distribution
presents a more a difficult comparison.
Section 6 Electromagnetic Propagation Log and Geological
Application 电磁波传播测井及地质应用
The standard resistivity logs, such as the deep laterolog and deep
induction log generate an electromagnetic wave in the frequency range
of 35 to 20,000 Hz (where hertz = cycles / second). At these
frequencies, the predominant influence on the wave is the conductivity
of the substance it is traveling through. In a reservoir, the conductivity is
strongly influenced by the salinity and distribution of the formation
water, and the distribution of formation water is controlled by the pure
type and formation wettability.
At higher frequencies ( in the 20 MHz (million hertz) to 1.1 GHz
(billion hertz) range), the dielectric properties of a substance become
very important to wave propagation ( Hilchie, 1982 ). High dielectric-
constant values are associated with polar compounds (极性化合物 ) such
as water. Since water is a polar compound, it requires energy to orient
all its dipoles (偶极子) in the direction of the electromagnetic wave
(dipolar (偶极) polarizability). Thus, an electromagnetic field moving
through water is weakened. Rock matrix and hydrocarbons are both
nonpolar compounds with very low dielectric constants, and therefore
weaken an electromagnetic field less than water does.
Table 5.3 is a list of the various dielectric logs run by the different
service companies. The Halliburton and Atlas Wireline logs are called
dielectric logs and the Schlumberger log is called an electromagnetic
propagation tool (EPT). These logs measure propagation time and
dielectric constant of the electromagnetic wave by reduction (衰减） in
wave amplitude and by shifts in the phase of the wave (Serra, 1984).
Table is a list of dielectric constants and propagation times for various materials.
It is apparent that water has a much greater wave travel time and dielectric constant than
any other material. The dielectric log therefore can be used to detect water bearing
versus hydrocarbon-bearing zones, and unlike the resistivity logs, the dielectric
measurement is independent of water distribution (and depending on the measurement
frequency, independent of water salinity). Therefore, pore type and wettability do not
influence its value.
6.2 Principles ( 原理 )
dielectric constants and propagation times can
be obtained from electromagnetic propagation tool
(EPT / DPT) . EPT is shallow detecting instrument
with working frequency of 1.1GHz, DPT is deep
detecting instrument with working frequency of
25MHz.
斯仑贝谢公司有两种电磁波传播测井仪
器：EPT和DPT。EPT为浅探测仪器，工作频率
为1.1GHz；DPT是深探测仪器，工作频率大约
是25MHz。
6.2 Principles ( 原理 )
Two transmitters and receivers are
mounted on the assembly of antenna pad
（right figure). The distance of transmitters
and receivers is about 8cm and 12cm. It can
obtain suitable detecting depth, in the mean
time, the signal detected is clear, can not be
ambiguity in phase difference.
两个微波发射器和两个接收器按井眼补偿方式装在天线滑板总
成上（见图）。发射器〜接收器间距分别为8cm和12cm，提供比较
合适的探测深度；同时，被探测的信号有足够的幅度，且不会出现
相位差模糊的情况。
amplitude
6.2 Principles ( 原理 ) Receiver 1 attenuation
electromagnetic wave with the time
frequency of 1.1GHz will be emitted Receiver 2

from the two transmitters phase shift
successively (依次地）. The a wave
amplitude and phase shift (β) will be
recorded no the each receiver.
Propagation time tpl（tpl=β/ω）and attenuation coefficient A (衰减系

数A) of the wave recorded on two receivers can be determined by the
result of measurement every time . ω- wave angular velocity
依次从两个发射器发出1.1GHz的电磁波；在每个接收器中都记
下这些波列的幅度和相位移β 。据每次测量结果，便可以确定出
波传播时间tpl（tpl=β/ω）和在接收器间隔上波的衰减系数A。
Average of measurements from two receivers is recorded each
time. 60 times measurements per second was recorded, and the
measurements from the interval of 2-6 inch thickness were averaged,
and recorded on the film or magnetic tape.
The attenuation coefficient of measurement will be compensated
by adding a correction factor( SL ) since the wave recorded is spherical
wave. attenuation coefficient corrected can be expressed as follow:
Ac=A+SL；
Ac - wave attenuation coefficient corrected (校正后的衰减系数)；
A - wave attenuation coefficient measured (测量的波的衰减系数)；
SL - spherical propagation loss (球形传播损失)。
SL=45+1.3tpl + 0.18tp2l。
If we know Attenuation coefficient and phase difference , relative
dielectric constant will be obtain by using lower chart.
relative dielectric constant

Attenuation coefficient
resistivity increasing direction
phase difference (degree)

left figure is a EPT log graph. The
track 1 contains caliper curve and
gamma ray curve.
Wave attenuation coefficient
corrected( EATT – unit is decibel(db) /
meter )and propagation time (TPL)
were recorded on the track 2 and 3.
EATT has been corrected by spherical
propagation loss , and is proportion to
attenuation coefficient A.
左图是一个EPT测井曲线图。第一道包括井
径和自然咖吗测井曲线。
电磁波衰减系数（EATT），单位 “分贝/
米”；传播时间，单位 “纳秒/米”
（TPL）。分别记录在第2道和第3道。EATT是
经过传播损失校正的，正比于衰减系数A。
Microcaliper curve was recorded on
the track 2. It can be used to do
supervision of irregular borehole so as
to analyze quality of EPT data.
EPT can be used in the borehole
with fresh mud, and also measured in
salt mud borehole and casing borehole
短臂井径仪的测量结果示于第2道，它用
来监视井眼的不规则变化，从而了解EPT数
据的质量。
EPT仪器不仅可在清水泥浆中钻进，也可
以在盐水泥浆及套管井中测量。
6.3 Geological Application (地质应用)
1. Water porosity in flushed zone
1.1 dielectric log:
2. Water porosity in flushed zone
1.2 EPT log:
ΦEPT = (TP0 - TPma ) / (TPw - TPma )
where：
tp02 = tpL2 – Ac2/3604
ΦEPT - water-filled porosity from EPT log;
tp0 - loss - free travel time;
TPma - travel time in the matrix;
TPw - travel time in water
Ac - wave attenuation coefficient corrected (校正了传播损耗的衰
减系数)。

2. Water saturation ( Sw) in flushed zone
Sxo = ΦEPT / ΦT
where：
ΦEPT - water-filled porosity from EPT log
ΦT - neutron-density porosity (from crossplot)
3. Reminded oil saturation ( Soj) in flushed zone
Overlap ΦT and ΦEPT curve is laid, the difference between ΦT and
ΦEPT is the reminded oil volume. The reminded oil saturation ( Soj) is
as follow:
Soj =(ΦT - ΦEPT ) / ΦT
表：常见矿物和流体的相对介电常数和传播时间
物资相对介电常数传播时间tpi(ns/m)
砂岩 4.65 7.2
白云岩 6.8 8.7
石灰岩 7.5-9.2 9.1-10.2
硬石膏 6.35 8.4
岩盐 5.6-6.35 7.9-8.4
石膏 4.16 6.8
干胶质 5.76 8
泥岩 5-25 7.45-16.6
油 2-2.4 4.7-5.2
气 1 3.3
水 56-80 25-30
淡水 78.3 29.5

03 Chapter 2 New Methods of Modern Logging and Geological Application

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03 Chapter 2 New Methods of Modern Logging and Geological Application

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Chapter two New methods of modern logging and

Litho-Density Log is the method to measure Photoelectric cross

Generally, two parameters will be

neglected due to Uf is much smaller than Uma ( Uf << Uma ). hereby:

Umaa - Bulk photoelectric cross section index of apparent formation

Фta - Apparent formation total porosity (视总孔隙度).

plot the points on the

Vsh=（CGR - CGRmin）/（CGRmax - CGRmin）

Th= ThGaolinite×VGaolinite+ Thmontmorillonite ×Vmontmorillonite

K =KGaolinite×VGaolinite+ Kmontmorillonite× Vmontmorillonite

and Th curve due to richness of elements of U and Th in source rock.

A statistic relation between U/K and TOC(%) (total organic carbon)

will be obtained by regression analysis ( 回归分析），and be used

to calculate TOC(%) by using the statistic model.

（C/O）w - The ratio of (C/O) from water-bearing formation ；

two images recorded with the first

experimental electrical imaging

slabbed core (left)

two images recorded with the first

experimental electrical imaging

slabbed core (left)

Comparisons of borehole images with slabbed cores show that

Among the deposilional bedding types that can be identified visually

The following structures caused by syn- and post-depositional

FMI image to illustrate geological texture.

Figure is a FMI image over a layered

NMR is the logging method used to measure free fluid content in

Hydrogen nuclei with an odd number

When a nuclear magnetic moment

(μi) of unit volume is called as

magnetic moment (μ) vector in the macro . x

The sum of the nuclear magnetic moment (μi)

Subsequently, several workers proposed specific forms of this

The two relationships are somewhat similar and strongly dependent

A tight sandstone sample whose pore size distribution curve was

electromagnetic wave with the time

frequency of 1.1GHz will be emitted Receiver 2

Propagation time tpl（tpl=β/ω）and attenuation coefficient A (衰减系

relative dielectric constant

resistivity increasing direction

phase difference (degree)

6.3 Geological Application (地质应用)

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