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About 4.5 billion
years ago, Earth
formed out of
nebula of gases and
dust that were to
become the solar
system
Small objectscalled
planetoids accreted or
combined together to build
larger objects…such as planets
Gravity reshapes the
proto-Earth into a
sphere. The interior of
the Earth separates into
a core and mantle.
Forming the planets from planetesimals:
Planetessimals grow by continuous
collisions. Gradually, an irregularly
shaped proto-Earth develops. The
interior heats up and becomes soft.
Why is the Earth (near) spherical?
• Accretion: the gradual addition of new
material
• When the Earth first accreted, it probably
wasn’t spherical
• What happened?
HEAT was generated and retained
Sources of Internal Heat
1) Gravity attracts
• Accretionary Heat planetesimal to the proto
earth
2) Planetesimals accelerate
on their journey, gaining
kinetic energy (KE=1/2mv2)
3) They strike the protoearth
at high speed
Protoearth
4) Their kinetic energy is
converted to thermal energy
(HEAT)
Sources of Internal Heat
• Accretionary Heat
Sources of Internal Heat
• Radioactive Decay
– The natural disintegration of certain isotopes to
form new nuclei
– Time for nuclei to decay given by a “halflife”
Radioactive decay is an
important source of the
Earth’s internal heat
Sources of Internal Heat
• Radioactive decay
– Shortlived Isotopes
26 Al 26Mg + Energy + … (t1/2 = 0.72 x 106 yrs)
129 I 129Xe + Energy + … (t1/2 = 16 x 106 yrs)
– Longlived Isotopes
40 K 40Ar + Energy + … (t1/2 = 1270 x 106 yrs)
232 Th (t1/2 = 1400 x 106 yrs)
235 U (t1/2 = 704 x 106 yrs)
238 U (t1/2 = 4470 x 106 yrs)
The Differentiated Earth
The earth differentiated into layers by density:
1) Crust High Si
Least Dense
Low Fe
2) Upper Mantle
1) Lithospheric
2) Asthenospheric
3) Lower Mantle
4) Outer Core
5) Inner Core Most Dense
Low Si High Fe
Because different minerals have
different composition and
densities, physical partitioning of
the earth led to:
chemical differentiation
The Differentiated Earth
Whole Earth Density Surface Rocks
~5.5 g/cm3 2.2 2.5 g/cm3
Continental Crust
• 35 40 km
• Less Dense
Oceanic Crust
• 7 10 km
•More Dense
The Mantle
The asthenosphere may contain a
few percent molten rock, but the
mantle is by and large solid
Despite this, given time, it will
flow
Loss of Internal Heat
• All celestial bodies lose heat
– Asteroids > Moon > Mars > Earth
• There are three main mechanisms
– Conduction
– Convection
– Radiation
• Conduction is the transfer of heat without
movement of material
Temperatures in the Earth
The geotherm is the description of how the temperature of the
earth increases with depth.
Pure conduction geotherm
Near the surface
(to 8 km depth):
23 °C/100 m depth
Heat loss by conduction!
Convection
Heating at the bottom:
• Increases temperature
• Decreases density
Less dense hot water rises…
• Displacing the cooler, denser
water at the top
Denser, cool water descends…
• Where it is heated
The Core & The Earth’s
Magnetic Field
The core is almost completely Fe/Ni alloy. The outer core is
liquid, while the inner core is solid.
Convection of the outer, liquid core gives rise to the Earth’s
magnetic field
The Atmosphere
Early Atm. Present Atm.
N2 N2 (78%)
CO2 O2 (21%)
H2O Ar (1%)
H2S CO2 (0.04%)
HCN H2O (varies)
…others …others
Where’s the H and He?
The First Atmosphere
• The early atmosphere would have been similar to
the Sunmainly hydrogen and helium, but this
atmosphere was lost quickly for two reasons:
– (1) The gravity of the modest size earth was not strong
enough to prevent such light gases from escaping to
space. Particularly since the early earth was hot!
– (2) It appears that around 30 million years after the
earth’s formation, it was struck by a large object…the
size of Mars. The result: the origin of the moon and
loss of earth’s early H, He atmosphere.
Formation of Moon from the
Debris of the Collision
Earth as Hell
• The surface of the earth during this period
was extremely hot with numerous
volcanoes
• The earth was under near constant
bombardment by objects of varying sizes
• Slowly, the earth started to cool down and
the second atmosphere began to form.
Earth’s Second Atmosphere
• A new atmosphere was established by the
outgasing of volcanoes…the mixture of gases was
probably similar to those of today’s volcanoes:
• H20 vapor (roughly 80%)
• CO2 (roughly 10%)
• N2 (few percent)
• Small amounts of CO, HCL, HS (Hydrogen
Sulfide), SO2, CH4 (Methane), Ammonia (NH3),
and other trace gases.
Earth’s Second Atmosphere
• Virtually no oxygen in that second atmosphere.
• Thus, no ozone layer, so ultraviolet radiation
flooded the earth’s surface.
• With a huge influx of water vapor and the cooling
of the planet, clouds and earth’s oceans formed.
• At that time the sun was about 30% weaker than
today…why didn’t the earth freeze over?
• The apparent reason: so much CO2 so there was a
very strong greenhouse effect.