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EQ Engg-2
EQ Engg-2
Characteristics
Intensity scale of earthquake
The intensity of an earthquake is based on the
damage and other observed effects on people,
buildings and other features.
Intensity varies from place to place within the
disturbed region.
Large magnitude earthquake that occur beneath the
ocean may not even be felt by humans.
An earthquake in a densely populated area that results
in many deaths and considerable damage may
have the same magnitude as a shock in a remote
area that does nothing more than frighten the
wildlife.
An intensity scale consists of a series of responses,
such as people awakening,movement of furniture,
and damage to chimneys.
Intensity scale of earthquake(Contd…)
Numerous intensity scales have been developed, the
scale encountered most often in the United
States is the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale consists of 12
increasing levels of intensity(expressed as Roman
numerals following the initials MM) that range from
imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction.
The lower numbers of the intensity scales Large
magnitude earthquake that occur beneath the
ocean may not even be felt by humans.
The higher numbers are based on observed structural
damage.
The numbers do not have a mathematical basis and
therefore are more meaningful to nontechnical
people than to those in technical fields.
Modified Mercalli Intensity scale
Intensity Observed effects of Earthquake
I Not felt except by very few under especially
favourable conditions
II Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially
by those on upper floors of buildings.
Delicately suspended objects may swing
III Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors,
especially in upper floors of buildings. Many
people do not recognize it as an
earthquake. Standing vehicles may rock
slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a
truck. Duration estimated.
Modified Mercalli Intensity scale(Contd…)
Intensity Observed effects of Earthquake
IV During the day, felt indoors by many, outdoors
by a few. At night, some awakened. Dishes,
windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking
sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking
building. Standing vehicles rock noticeably.
V Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some
dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects
overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy
furniture moved. A few instances of fallen
plaster. Damage slight.
Modified Mercalli Intensity scale(Contd…)
Intensity Observed effects of Earthquake
VII Damage negligible in buildings of good
design and construction; slight to moderate in
well-built ordinary structures; considerable
damage in poorly-built structures. Some
chimneys broken.
VIII Damage slight in specially-designed
structures; considerable damage in ordinary
substantial buildings, with partial collapse.
Damage great in poorly-built structures.
Fallen chimneys, factory stacks, columns,
monuments, walls, heavy furniture
overturned.
Modified Mercalli Intensity scale(Contd…)
Intensity Observed effects of Earthquake
IX Damage considerable in specially-designed
structures; well-designed frame structures
thrown out of plumb. Damage great in
substantial buildings, with partial collapse.
Buildings shifted off foundations.
X Some well-built wooden structures destroyed;
most masonry and frame structures with
foundations destroyed. Rails bent.
XI Few, if any, masonry structures remain
standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent
greatly.
XII Damage total. Lines of sight and level are
distorted. Objects thrown into air.
Isoseismal maps
Maps showing regions of equal intensity of earthquake is called an
isoseismal map. This type of maps can be obtained by observation or,
in some cases, by questionnaires from residents of a locality after an
earthquake.
Richter magnitude scale
This scale was developed by Charles F.Richter of the
California Institute of technology in 1935.
This scale is used to measure the earthquake strength
or magnitude M.
The magnitude on Richter scale is the logarithm of
the amplitude recorded by a seismometer. Adjustments
are included in the magnitude to compensate for the
variation in the distance between the various
seismometer and the epicenter.
Because the Richter magnitude is a logarithm scale,
each whole number increase in magnitude represents
a ten-fold increase in measured amplitude.
Richter magnitude scale(Contd…)
Richter magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and
decimal fractions.
A magnitude of 5.3 correspond to moderate earthquake.
A strong earthquake might be rated at 7.3.Great
earthquake have magnitudes above 7.5. Earthquakes
with magnitudes 2.0 or less are known as microearth-
quakes, and these are rarely felt by people.
Several thousand seismic events with magnitudes of
approximately 4.5 or greater occur each year and have
little potential to cause structural damage.
The magnitude of an earthquake depends on the length
and breadth of the fault slip, as well as on the amount
of the slip.
Although the Richter scale has no lower or upper limit,
the largest known shocks have had magnitude 8.9
Richter magnitude calculation
Richter scale magnitude is calculated from the
maximum amplitude ‘A’ of the seismometer trace.
Richter magnitude calculation(contd…)
A0 is the seismometer reading produced by an
Earthquake of standard size (i.e., a calibration
earthquake). Generally A0 is 0.001 mm.
A
M log 10
A0
This equation assumes that a distance of 100 km
separates the seismometer and the epicenter. For other
distances the nomograph and the following procedure
can be used to calculate the magnitude.
Due to lack of reliable information on the nature of the
Earth between the observation point and the
earthquake epicenter, an error of 10 to 40 km in locating
the epicenter is not unrealistic.
Richter magnitude correction nomograph
Richter magnitude calculation(Contd…)
Step-1: Determine the time between the arrival of the
P- and S- waves
Step-2: Determine the maximum amplitude of the
oscillation.
Step-3: Connect the arrival time difference on the left
scale and the amplitude on the right scale with a straight
line.
Step-4: Read the Richter magnitude on the center scale.
Step-5: Read the distance separating the seismometer
and the epicenter from the left scale.
Note: One seismometer can determine the approximate
distance to the epicenter, it takes three seismometers to
determine and verify the location of the epicenter.
Energy release and magnitude correlation
Most of the relationships are of this general form.
log 10 E log 10 E 0 aM
The relationship developed by Gutenberg and Richter
In 1956, is verified against data from underground
explosions.
log 10 E 11.8 1.5M
E is energy in ergs.
log 10 LD 10 1.90M 2.65
2 6
Peak ground acceleration(PGA)
Peak ground acceleration is one of the most important
Characteristics of an earthquake. PGA is measured by
A seismometer or accelerometer.
PGA is given is various units, ft/sec2, in/sec2, m/s2
The most common is express in “g’s” (i.e., as a fraction
Or percent of gravitational acceleration.
a ft / sec2
PGA 100%
32.2
a in / sec2
100%
386
a m / s2
100%
9.81
Peak ground acceleration(PGA)(Contd…)
The following equation gives relationship between
Richter magnitude M and the PGA at the epicenter.
2.7g[8] 2.99 g[9][10] 9.0 30 km[11] >15000[12] 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
log 10 N a bM