UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION IV

 Cement is a dry powdered chemical that, when mixed with water, slowly reacts to form a new hard, solid
compound.

On the other hand, concrete is a mixture of cement blended with water and various sizes of aggregates.
The cement and water form a paste that glues the aggregates together when it hardens.

When the cement has chemically reacted with the water (hydration), it hardens and binds the whole mix together. The
initial hardening reaction usually occurs within a few hours. It takes some weeks for concrete to reach full hardness and
strength.

Concrete can continue to harden and gain strength over many years.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 CEMENT: A powdery substance made by calcining Lime and Clay, mixed with water to form mortar or mixed with
sand, gravel, and water to make concrete. It is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can
bind other materials together.
Lime + Clay + Water = Cement
And
Cement + Sand + Gravel = Concrete

CONCRETE has two components; aggregate and paste.

Aggregates generally are of two sizes; fine and coarse.

• Fine aggregates are those with particle sizes smaller than about 5mm, commonly known as sand, which can be natural or
manufactured.
• Coarse aggregates are those with particle sizes greater than about 5mm. Gravel, crushed stone and blast furnace slag are
among the most commonly used coarse aggregates.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 The Egyptians used calcined gypsum as a cement and the
Greeks and Romans used lime made by heating limestone
and added sand to make mortar, with coarser stones for
concrete.

The Romans found that a cement could be made which

set under water and this was used for the construction of
harbors. This cement was made by adding crushed
volcanic ash to lime and was later called a "pozzolanic"
cement, named after the village of Pozzuoli near
Vesuvius.

In places where volcanic ash was scarce, such as

Britain, crushed brick or tile was used instead. The
Romans were therefore probably the first to manipulate
systematically the properties of cementitious materials for
specific applications and situations.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 Pozzolana Coliseum

Pantheon

(Refer ppt: Historical time line of concrete in architecture with examples)

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 SUMMARY
▪ Cement was first invented by Egyptians.
▪ The Greeks and the Babylonians brought about some changes in the
original cement composition.
▪ Later the Romans produced cement from Pozzolana, an ash found in
all of the volcanic areas of Italy, by mixing the ash with lime.
▪ The manufacturing of cement was started in England around 1825.

INDIAN CEMENT INDUSTRY

India entered into the Cement Era in 1914,
when the Indian Cement Company Ltd. started
manufacturing Cement in Porbundar in Gujarat
▪ India started cement production in 1904. The first cement factory was
installed in Tamil Nadu.
▪ Our country is the 2nd largest producer of cement in the world.
▪ There are about 51 companies and 99 plants having installed capacity
of manufacturing 770 million kN of cement. It accounts for about 4% of
the world production.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

CEMENT
 CEMENT
Chemical Composition of Cement
Lime 63%
Silica 22%
Alumina 06%
Iron oxide 03%
Gypsum 01 to 04%
There are different types of cement manufactured to
meet different physical and chemical requirements for
specific construction projects by altering following
ingredients while manufacturing:

Cements are bradly divided into:

1) Portland cement
2) Special cement

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 TYPES OF CEMENTS

Types of Portland cement: Types of special cements:

( Widely used type of cement) ( Generally manufactured by adding
certain admixtures to the cement
during process of mixing or grinding)
1. Ordinary Portland cement
2. Portland pozzalana cement
1. Quick setting cement
3. Rapid hardening Portland cement
2. Calcium chloride cement
4. Low heat Portland cement
3. High alumina cement
5. White or coloured Portland cement
4. Slag cement
6. Sulphate resistant Portland cement
-Portland Slag cement
7. Water repellent Portland cement
-Lime slag cement
8. Water proof Portland cement
- Sulphate slag cement
9. Portland blast furnace cement
5. Expansive cement
 Sulphate resistant
Rapid hydration/hardening
Early strength gain
Rapid hydration
Add strength
Soundness properties
Add strength and hardness
Regulates setting time
Sometimes causes expansion
Improve properties
Quickens setting/ability to withstand frigid T

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Some of the numerous uses of cement are given below.
1.It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
2.It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3.It is used for water tightness of structure.
4.It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing
lintels, beams, stairs, pillars etc.
5.It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of
exposed surfaces of structures against the destructive agents of
the weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
6.It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts
etc.
7.It is used in the construction of important engineering structures
such as bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.
8.It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors,
footpaths etc.
9.It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis
courts, lamp posts, telephone cabins, roads etc.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

USES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

USES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

CEMENT TEST
Testing of cement Can be categorized as follows:
1) Field Testing.
2) Laboratory Testing.

1) Field Testing.
• Open the bag and take a good look at the cement, then it
should not contain any visible lumps.
• Colour of cement should be greenish grey.
• Should get cool feeling when thrusted.
• When we touch the cement, it should give a smooth ¬ a
gritty feeling.
• When we throw the cement on a bucket full of water before
it sinks the particles should flow.
• When we make a stiff paste of cement & cut it with sharp
edges & kept on a glass plate under water there wont be
any disturbance to the shape& should get strength after
24hours.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

2)Physical / Laboratory Testing Of
Cement
The following tests of cement are
usually conducted in the laboratory:
a) Fineness Test
b) Normal consistency test
c) Initial and final setting time test
d) Soundness test
e) compressive Strength Test
f) Heat of hydration test
g) Chemical composition test.
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE
a) Fineness Test of Cement
The object of this test is to check
the proper grinding of cement.
i) Sieving
Weight correctly 100 grams of
cement and take it on a standard
IS sieve no 9 (90 microns) .
Break down the air set lumps in
the sample with fingers.
Continuously sieve the sample
manually
or mechanically for 15
minutes, Weigh the residue left
on the sieve. This weigh shall not
exceed 10% for ordinary cement
& 5% for rapid hardening or low
heat cement.
b) Normal Consistency Test of Cement
Normal Consistency test of cement is conducted to determine
the quantity of water required to produce a cement paste of
standard or normal consistency for use in other tests.
• For first trial, take about 500gms of cement & water of 24% by
weight of cement.
• Fill it in Vicat’s mould.
• After filling, shake the mould to expel air.
• A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and
brought down to touch the surface of the paste and quickly
released.
• Note the reading according to depth of penetration of the
plunger.
• Conduct trials continuously by taking different water cement
ratios till the plunger penetrates for a depth of 33- 35mm from
top.
• This particular percentage is known as percentage of water
required to produce cement paste of standard consistency.
• This is usually denoted as ‘P’
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE
 c) Initial setting time test
• The time elapsed between the moment that the water is
added to the cement, to the time that the paste starts losing
its plasticity. (5mm penetration)
• Normally a minimum of 30min has maintained for mixing &
handling operations.
• It should not be less than 30min.

c) Final setting time test

• The time elapsed between the moment the water is added
to the cement, and the time when the paste has completely
lost its plasticity and has attained sufficient firmness to
resist certain definite pressure
• It should not exceed 10hours.
• So that it is avoided from least vulnerable to damages from
external activities.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

d) Soundness test
 It is very important that the cement after setting shall not
undergo any appreciable change of volume.
 This test is to ensure that the cement does not show any
subsequent expansions.
 The unsoundness in cement is due to the presence of excess
of lime combined with acidic oxide at the kiln.
 This is due to high proportion of magnesia & calcium sulphate.
 Therefore magnesia content in cement is limited to 6%.

Oil the split cylinder and glass plate before filling the
mould.L1-L2 < 10mm Good sound concrete)
e) Strength test L1- LOE after dipping in 27Deg C water
• This is the most important of all properties of hardened L2-LOE after dipping in boiling water
cement.
• Due to excessive shrinkage and cracking the strength tests are
not made on heat cement paste.
• Standard sand is used for finding the strength of cement.
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE
CEMENT
MORTAR
CEMENT MORTAR
Cement mortar is a building compound created by mixing sand and a selection of aggregates with a specified
amount of water. The mortar can be used for a number of applications, such as plastering over bricks or other
forms of masonry.

Cement mortar also makes an excellent medium for creating a smooth surface to walls made from bricks and
other forms of masonry. The mortar is applied with the use of a trowel and then smoothed into position.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 (Fine aggregate)

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE
 CONCRETE

Composition of concrete
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Both plastic and hardened concrete have distinct desirable properties.

The essential properties of plastic concrete are:
• Workability
( depends on water content, fineness of cement, Types and
grading of aggregate, Aggregate cement ratio, Presence of admixtures)
• Non – segregating
• Setting in specified time

The essential properties of hardened concrete are:

• Strength
• Water- tightness
• Durability
• Volume stability
• Abrasion resistance

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
Concrete workability is a broad and subjective term describing how
easily freshly mixed concrete can be mixed, placed, consolidated and
finished with minimal loss of homogeneity.

Workability is a property that directly impacts strength, quality,

appearance, and even the cost of labor for placement and finishing
operations.

Factors affecting workability:

• Proportion of course aggregate( finer the aggregate greater the workability)

• Shape of aggregate ( Round aggregate renders more workability)
• Water cement ratio
• Quantity of cement
• Process of mixing
OVER MANY YEARS, MANY DEVICES HAVE BEEN DEVOLOPED FOR
MEASURING WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE AS FOLLOWS:

1. SLUMP TEST
2. VEEBEE CONSISTOMETER TEST
3. BALL PENETRATION TEST
4. COMPACTING FACTOR TEST
5. FLOW TEST

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

SLUMP TEST

The concrete slump

test measures the
desirable Undesirable consistency of fresh
concrete before it
sets

A conical frustum of of 300mm ht is

placed on smooth and levelled surface
with smaller opening(100mm) at top.

The mould is filled with concrete in four equal layers of approximately one fourth ht and tamped 25
times per layer each with 600 mm long steel rod.
The mould is removed and the unsupported concrete is allowed to sump.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

COMPACTING FACTOR TEST Concrete is allowed to fall under gravity through hoppers into a cylinder from a standard height.

Trap door

RESULT

0.85 – Low
0.92 – Medium
0.95- High
1. The hoppers should be closed at the bottom with
hinged trap doors. 3. The ratio of the weight of concrete compacted
2. Concrete is filled in the first hopper and later the in the lowest cylinder divided by the same
concrete is dropped from the top hopper to the volume of fully compacted concrete is the
one below and finally to the cylinder by opening compacting factor( <01)
trap doors one by one.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

VEEBEE CONSISTOMETER TEST

Veebee test determine the time required to achieve

compaction, which is related to the total work done.

Compaction is achieved using a vibrating table.

The workability is expressed in seconds of time required

to level the cone

This test measures the time required to change the shape of the
concrete from a standard compacted slump cone to a flat
cylinder under vibration.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

FLOW TEST

Suitable for high or medium workability concrete

Fill the concrete in the mould similar to slump test. Remove the mould slowly and board is lifted, tilted and dropped 15
times.
The average spread of concrete denotes the workability of concrete.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

BALL PENETRATION TEST

• Simple test carried out at construction sites.

• A 6” dia metal hemispherical ball (13.6kg) is allowed to sink in fresh concrete under its own weight.
• The depth to which the ball sinks, determine the workability of concrete.
• For this test, depth of concrete should not be less than 8” and least lateral dimension should be 18”

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

WATER CEMENT RATIO

The ratio of the volume of water to volume of cement used in a concrete mix is termed as water cement ratio.

Three simple ingredients can be blended and proportioned numerous ways to make concrete:
•aggregate
•cement
•water

For a given proportion of ingredients in a concrete mix, there is almost a fixed amount of water which gives
maximum strength and workability.
A w/c ratio of 0.4 means that for every 100 lbs of cement used in the concrete, 40 lbs of water is added.
Typical w/c ratios are as follows:
•Normal for ordinary concrete (sidewalks and driveways): 0.6 to 0.7
•Specified if a higher quality concrete is desired: 0.4

The practical range of the w/c ratio is from about 0.3 to over 0.8.
•A ratio of 0.3 is very stiff (unless superplasticizers are used).
•A ratio of 0.8 makes a wet and fairly weak concrete.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
Concrete is a composite mixture which consists of Cement, Sand and Aggregate.
Concrete mix design is the procedure for finding the right quantities of these materials to achieve the desired strength.
Accurate concrete mix design makes concrete construction economical.

In order to calculate or find the right amount of cement, sand and aggregate required in 1m3 of concrete; you need to know
about different grades of concrete.

Different grades of concrete are classified into M5, M7.5, M10, M15 etc

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Different types of Concrete mixes (proportioning):
Concrete Mixes are primarily divided into the two different types :

Nominal Mix:
Nominal Mix is generally adopted for small scale constructions. In this type of mix, the mix ratios and concrete
constituent proportions are prefixed and specified. Eg: M20(1:1.5:3); the quantity of cement, sand and
aggregate is batched in volume as per the fixed ratio 1:1.5:3.

till M25 grade, the concrete proportions are called as Nominal mix concrete.

Design Mix:
Design mix concrete is adopted for high rise constructions. In this type of mix, the mix ratios are decided by an
Engineer after analyzing the properties of individual ingredients of concrete. Like, cement is tested for Fineness
modulus and Specific gravity of cement in the lab while deciding the Design mix ratio. There is No Pre-fixed ratio,
and ingredients are batched in weight.

concrete grades more than M25 falls in Design mix.

In Simple, Design Mix refers to the ratios which are decided by the designer.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

METHODS OF PROPORTIONATING CONCRETE MIXES

Aim of evolving different methods of proportionating concrete is to get strongest and the densest mix with least amount
of concrete.

The different methods of proportionating concrete are:

1. By arbitrary standards

2. By minimum void method

3. By trail or maximum density method

4. By fineness modulus method

5. By water cement ratio law

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

STAGES OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

1)Batching of materials 2)Mixing of concrete 3)Transportation of mixed concrete 4)Formwork

5)Placing of concrete 6)Compaction of concrete 7)Curing of concrete

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 Two different types of concrete mixing are:
1) Hand mixing
MIXING OF 2) Machine mixing
CONCRETE

Hand mixing:
This method of mixing is resorted to when the quantity of concrete
to be used is less or is insufficient to warrant the necessity of
machines.
Or certain situations in site where,
- Machinery cannot be used
- Noise is not desirable.

Machine mixing:
The machine used for mixing concrete is termed as concrete mixer.
Two types of concrete mixers are:
1) Continuous mixers( employed in massive construction)
2) Batch mixers( mixing happens batch wise, Small or medium
scale construction)

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE


FORMWORK OF CONCRETE
(Centering/shuttering)
A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1. Should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead load and live loads such as
self weight, weight of reinforcement, weight of wet concrete, construction
equipment, etc.
2. Should be rigidly constructed efficiently braced ( both horizontally and vertically) so
as to retain its shape without deflection.
3. Joints should be tight against leakage of cement grout
4. Constructed in a manner it may permit the removal of various parts in desired
sequence without damaging the concrete

Formwork is temporary or
permanent molds into which
concrete or similar materials are
poured.
5. The formwork material should be cheap, easily available and re-usable.
6. Formwork should be set accurately to desired levels and should be levelled and
plain surfaces.
7. Should be as light as possible
8. The formwork material should not get distorted when exposed to sun or rain.
9. Should be rest on firm base.

Materials for formwork : Plywood, timber, steel, aluminium, precast concrete or fibre glass.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 THINGS TO BE TAKEN CARE OF WHILE PLACING:

• Placing of concrete should be done immediately after mixing

• Mixed mass should be used within 30 minutes.
This is necessary to prevent the danger of concrete getting its initial set.
• Before laying/placing concrete the formwork should be cleaned of all the dust
and debris.
PLACING OF CONCRETE
• In order to prevent the shuttering absorbing water from the placed concrete, or
getting stuck to it, shuttering its coated with crude oil or grease.
• In placing concrete, care should be taken to see that it should not be thrown from
heights.
• Concrete should be laid in layers 15 – 30 cm in thickness.
• Each layer should be properly compacted before laying the next layer.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 • Should be done immediately after placing
• The function of compaction is to expel the air bubbled trapped in the mass while
placing of concrete.
• The concrete mass should be compacted till the cream of cement starts appearing
on the surface.
• Over compaction may lead to segregation while under compaction may leave air
COMPACTION OF CONCRETE voids in concrete.
• Can be done by hand ( tamping or roding )or mechanical device.( vibrators)
• Four types of vibrators are :
- Internal vibrators( immersion type)
- External vibrators
- Surface vibrators
- Vibrating tables

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

 Curing may be done by adopting the following methods:

1. By covering the exposed surface with moist sand , earth, gunny bags etc
and sprinkling water at intervals to keep it wet.
2. Impounding water in earthen or sandy bunds in squares over entire
area.
3. Columns, walls or such other vertical surfaces are usually cured by
wrapping wet gunny bags or canvas over the surface and keeping it
continuously wet by sprinkling water.
CURING OF CONCRETE
• One of the essential requirements of the process of concreting
• Curing is the process of keeping the initially set concrete continuously damp for some days in order to enable the concrete
gain more strength.
• Strength of concrete increases with the age provided it is kept damp.
• During the process of curing,the concrete absorb the water necessary for the complete chemical reaction to reach its
required strength.
• In general process of curing should be continued for 7 to 10 days.
• In cold weather 14 days.

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

WATER PROOFING OF CONCRETE
A well designed concrete mix properly laid, compacted and cured is in itself impermeable.

Absorption of moisture by the building materials is one of the chief cause of dampness. On account of the granular
nature of materials, moisture finds an easy access through the voids and this added by capillary action assists the
moisture to travel in different directions.

The following conditions should be satisfied to achieve the object:

1. Use the best available material
2. Proportionate the aggregates by fineness modulus method
3. Optimum water cement ratio to be maintained for workability
4. Ensure complete mixing of concrete
5. Complete supervision during laying and compaction.
6. Complete curing.
DEFECTS CAUSED BY DAMPNES
1. Disintegration of bricks, stones, tiles etc
2. Softening and crumbling of plaster
3. Bleaching and flaking of paint with coloured patches
4. Warping, buckling and rotting of timber
5. Corrosion of metals
6. Deteriorate electrical fittings
7. Growth of termites
8. Breeds mosquitoes and creates unhealthy living conditions
METHODS OF DAMP PROOFING

1. MEMBRANE DAMP-PROOFING
2. INTEGRAL DAMP-PROOFING
3. SURFACE TREATMENT
4. GUNITING AND SHOTCRETING
5. CAVITY WALL CONSTRUCTION
1. MEMBRANE DAMP-PROOFING

This consists in providing layer or membrane of water repellent material between the source of dampness
and the part of the structure adjacent to it( DPC – Damp proof course). Depending upon source of
dampness, D.P.C. may be provided vertically or horizontally in walls, floors etc.

Provision of D.P.C. in basement is normally termed as ‘tanking’.

It may comprise materials like:

• Bituminous felts
• Mastic
• Asphalt
• Silicon
• Epoxy
• Polymers
• Plastic
• Polythene concrete
• Polymer cement concrete etc.

Bituminous membrane
2. INTEGRAL DAMP-PROOFING
This consists in adding certain water proofing compounds( powdered or liquid) with the concrete mix to increase
its impermeability.

The compounds made from clay, sand or lime (chalk ,talc ,fullers earth etc) helps to fill the voids in concrete and
make it water proof.

Another form of compounds like alkanine silicates, aluminium sulpahates, calcium chlorides etc reacts
chemically with the concrete when mixed to form water proof concrete.

• Pudlo
• Permo
• Impermo are some of the many commercially made water proofing
compounds.
3. SURFACE TREATMENT

In order to check the entry of moisture into the pores, they must be filled up. Surface
treatment consists in filling up the pores of the surfaces subjected to dampness.

Use of water repellent metallic soaps such as calcium and aluminium oleates and sterates
are much effective in protecting the building surfaces from moisture.

• Bituminous solution
• Cement coating
• Transparent coatings
• Paints
• varnishes etc fall under this category.

• Lime plaster is commonly used wall treatments.

Bituminous solution coating

4. GUNITING & SHOTCRETING

• This consists in depositing an impervious layer of rich cement mortar over the surface to be water – proofed.
• This operation is carried out by use of a machine known as cementgun.

This assembly broadly consists of a machine having arrangements for mixing materials and a compressor for forcing this
mixture under pressure through a 50mm dia flexible hose pipe.
This hose pipe has a nozzle at its free end to which water is supplied under pressure

Dry Mix Process or Guniting

The preparation of dry mix will involve:

1. Mixing of cement and aggregates in dry condition inside a bin

2. Pumping the dry mix through a hose using compressed air with a higher
pressure through a spray gun.

3. At the nozzle of the gun, water is introduced to the dry mix. This happens
just before the mix comes out of the nozzle on to the surface
Wet Mix Process or Shotcrete

The preparation of wet mix will involve:

1. A pre-mixed concrete or mortar is sprayed in high pressure on the surface

2. These methods eliminated the need for adding water at the nozzle
5. CAVITY WALL CONSTRUCTION

This consists of shielding the main wall of the building by an outer skin wall leaving a cavity in between
the two. The cavity prevents the moisture from travelling from the outer wall to the inner wall.