The Nature of Materials 8975

THE NATURE OF MATERIALS
• Atomic Structure and the Elements

• Bonding between Atoms and Molecules
• Crystalline Structures
• Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures
• Engineering Materials
©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 2/e”
Why Materials are Important in
Manufacturing
• Manufacturing is a transformation process
 It is the material that is transformed
 And it is the behavior of the material when
subjected to the forces, temperatures, and other
parameters of the process that determines the
success of the operation
Atomic Structure and the Elements
• The basic structural unit of matter is the atom

• Each atom is composed of a positively charged
nucleus, surrounded by a sufficient number of
negatively charged electrons so the charges are
balanced
• More than 100 elements, and they are the chemical
building blocks of all matter
Element Groupings
• The elements can be grouped into families and

relationships established between and within the
families by means of the Periodic Table
 Metals occupy the left and center portions of the
table
 Nonmetals are on right
 Between them is a transition zone containing
metalloids or semi-metals
Figure 2.1 - Periodic Table of Elements. The atomic number and
symbol are listed for the 103 elements
Bonding between Atoms and Molecules
• Atoms are held together in molecules by various

types of bonds
1. Primary bonds - generally associated with
formation of molecules
2. Secondary bonds - generally associated with
attraction between molecules
• Primary bonds are much stronger than secondary
bonds
Primary Bonds
• Characterized by strong atom-to-atom attractions that

involve exchange of valence electrons
• Following forms:
 Ionic
 Covalent
 Metallic
Ionic Bonding
• Atoms of one element give up their outer
electron(s), which are in turn attracted to atoms of
some other element to increase electron count in
the outermost shell to eight
Figure 2.4 - Three

forms of primary
bonding: (a) ionic
Covalent Bonding
• Electrons are shared (as opposed to transferred)
between atoms in their outermost shells to achieve a
stable set of eight
Figure 2.4 - Primary

bonding: (b) covalent
Metallic Bonding
• Sharing of outer shell
electrons by all atoms to
form a general electron
cloud that permeates the
entire block
Figure 2.4 - Primary bonding:

(c) metallic
Secondary Bonds
Whereas primary bonds involve atom-to-atom attractive

forces, secondary bonds involve attraction forces
between molecules
• No transfer or sharing of electrons in secondary
bonding, and bonds are weaker than primary bonds
• Three forms:
1. Dipole forces
2. London forces
3. Hydrogen bonding
Dipole Forces
• Arise in a molecule comprised of two atoms with
equal and opposite electrical charges
• Each molecule therefore forms a dipole that attracts
other molecules
Figure 2.6 - Types of secondary bonding: (a) dipole forces
London Forces
• Attractive force between nonpolar molecules, i.e.,
atoms in molecule do not form dipoles
• However, due to rapid motion of electrons in orbit,
temporary dipoles form when more electrons are on
one side
Figure 2.6 - Secondary bonding: (b) London forces
Hydrogen Bonding
• Occurs in molecules containing hydrogen atoms
covalently bonded to another atom (e.g., H2O)
• Since electrons to complete shell of hydrogen atom
are aligned on one side of nucleus, opposite side has
a net positive charge that attracts electrons in other
molecules
Figure 2.6 -
Secondary bonding:
(c) hydrogen
bonding
Macroscopic Structures of Matter
• Atoms and molecules are the building blocks of more

macroscopic structure of matter
• When materials solidify from the molten state, they
tend to close ranks and pack tightly, arranging
themselves into one of two structures:
 Crystalline
 Noncrystalline
Crystalline Structure
Structure in which the atoms are located at regular and

recurring positions in three dimensions
• Unit cell - basic geometric grouping of atoms that is
repeated
• The pattern may be replicated millions of times within
a given crystal
• Characteristic structure of virtually all metals, as well
as many ceramics and some polymers
Figure 2.7 - Body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure:
(a) unit cell, with atoms indicated as point locations in a
three-dimensional axis system
(b) unit cell model showing closely packed atoms
(sometimes called the hard-ball model)
(c) repeated pattern of the BCC structure
Figure 2.8 - Three types of crystal structures in metals:
(a) body-centered cubic
(b) face-centered cubic
(c) hexagonal close-packed
Crystal Structures for Common Metals
(at Room Temperature)
• Body-centered cubic (BCC)

 Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
• Face-centered cubic (FCC)
 Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver, Nickel
• Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
 Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc
Imperfections (Defects) in Crystals
• Imperfections often arise due to inability of

solidifying material to continue replication of unit cell,
e.g., grain boundaries in metals
• Imperfections can also be introduced purposely;
e.g., addition of alloying ingredient in metal
• Types of defects:
1. Point defects
2. Line defects
3. Surface defects
Point Defects
Imperfections in crystal structure involving either a
single atom or a few number of atoms
Figure 2.9 - Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) ion-pair vacancy, (c)
interstitialcy, (d) displaced ion (Frenkel Defect)
Line Defects
Connected group of point defects that forms a line in the

lattice structure
• Most important line defect is a dislocation, which can
take two forms:
 Edge dislocation
 Screw dislocation
Edge Dislocation
Edge of an extra plane of atoms that exists in the lattice
Figure 2.10 - Line

defects: (a) edge
dislocation
Screw Dislocation
Spiral within the lattice structure wrapped around an
imperfection line, like a screw is wrapped around its axis
Figure 2.10 - Line

defects: (b) screw
dislocation
Surface Defects
Imperfections that extend in two directions to form a

boundary
• Examples:
 External: the surface of a crystalline object is an
interruption in the lattice structure
 Internal: grain boundaries are internal surface
interruptions
Elastic Strain
• When a crystal experiences a gradually increasing
stress, it first deforms elastically
• If force is removed lattice structure returns to its
original shape
Figure 2.11 -
Deformation of a crystal
structure: (a) original
lattice: (b) elastic
deformation, with no
permanent change in
positions of atoms
Plastic Strain
• If stress is higher than forces holding atoms in their
lattice positions, a permanent shape change occurs
• Atoms have permanently moved from their previous
locations, and a new equilibrium lattice is formed
Figure 2.11 -
Deformation of a crystal
structure: (c) plastic
deformation (slip), in
which atoms in the lattice
are forced to move to
new "homes"
Figure 2.12 - Effect of dislocations in the lattice structure under stress
In the series of diagrams, the movement of the dislocation allows
deformation to occur under a lower stress than in a perfect lattice
Slip on a Macroscopic Scale
• Slip occurs many times over throughout the metal

when subjected to a deforming load, thus causing it
to exhibit its macroscopic behavior in the stress-strain
relationship
• Dislocations are a good-news-bad-news situation
 Good news in manufacturing – the metal is easier
to form
 Bad news in design – the metal is not as strong as
the designer would like
Twinning
A second mechanism of plastic deformation in which
atoms on one side of a plane (called the twinning plane)
are shifted to form a mirror image of the other side
Figure 2.13 - Twinning, involving the formation of an atomic

mirror image (i.e., a "twin") on the opposite side of the
twinning plane: (a) before, and (b) after twinning
The Polycrystalline Nature of Metals
• A block of metal may contain millions of individual

crystals, called grains
• Such a structure is called polycrystalline
• Each grain has its own unique lattice orientation; but
collectively, the grains are randomly oriented in the
block
Grains and Grain Boundaries in Metals
• How do polycrystalline structures form?

 As a block (of metal) cools from the molten state
and begins to solidify, individual crystals nucleate
at random positions and orientations throughout
the liquid
 These crystals grow and finally interfere with each
other, forming at their interface a surface defect - a
grain boundary
 Grain boundaries are transition zones, perhaps
only a few atoms thick
Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures
• Many materials are noncrystalline

 Water and air have noncrystalline structures
 A metal loses its crystalline structure when melted
• Important engineering materials have noncrystalline
forms in their solid state
 Glass
 Many plastics
 Rubber
Features of
Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures
• Two features differentiate noncrystalline from
crystalline materials:
1. Absence of long-range order in molecular
structure
2. Differences in melting and thermal expansion
characteristics
Figure 2.14 - Illustration of difference in structure between:
(a) crystalline and (b) noncrystalline materials. The
crystal structure is regular, repeating, and denser; while
the noncrystalline structure is more loosely packed and
random
Figure 2.15 - Characteristic change in volume for a pure metal (a
crystalline structure), compared to the same volumetric changes
in glass (a noncrystalline structure)
Characteristics of Metals
• Crystalline structures in the solid state, almost

without exception
• BCC, FCC, or HCP unit cells
• Atoms held together by metallic bonding
• Properties: high strength and hardness, high
electrical and thermal conductivity
• FCC metals are generally ductile
Characteristics of Ceramics
• Most ceramics have crystal structure, while glass

(SiO2) is amorphous
• Molecules characterized by ionic or covalent bonding,
or both
• Properties: high hardness and stiffness, electrically
insulating, refractory, and chemically inert
Characteristics of Polymers
• Many repeating mers in molecule held together by

covalent bonding
• Polymers usually carbon plus one or more other
elements: H, N, O, and Cl
• Amorphous (glassy) structure or mixture of
amorphous and crystalline
• Properties: low density, high electrical resistivity, and
low thermal conductivity, strength and stiffness vary
widely

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THE NATURE OF MATERIALS

• Atomic Structure and the Elements

• The basic structural unit of matter is the atom

• The elements can be grouped into families and

• Atoms are held together in molecules by various

• Characterized by strong atom-to-atom attractions that

Figure 2.4 - Three

Figure 2.4 - Primary

Figure 2.4 - Primary bonding:

Whereas primary bonds involve atom-to-atom attractive

Figure 2.6 - Types of secondary bonding: (a) dipole forces

Figure 2.6 - Secondary bonding: (b) London forces

• Atoms and molecules are the building blocks of more

Structure in which the atoms are located at regular and

• Body-centered cubic (BCC)

• Imperfections often arise due to inability of

Connected group of point defects that forms a line in the

Figure 2.10 - Line

Figure 2.10 - Line

Imperfections that extend in two directions to form a

• Slip occurs many times over throughout the metal

Figure 2.13 - Twinning, involving the formation of an atomic

• A block of metal may contain millions of individual

• How do polycrystalline structures form?

• Many materials are noncrystalline

• Crystalline structures in the solid state, almost

• Most ceramics have crystal structure, while glass

• Many repeating mers in molecule held together by

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