3.

0 PERIODIC TABLE

1
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

• At the end of the lesson the students should be

able to :
• (i) Indicate period, group and block (s, p, d, f).
• (ii) Specify the position of metals, metalloids
and non-metals in the periodic table.
• (iii) Deduce the position of elements in the
periodic table from its electronic
configuration.
2
 3.1 Classification of elements
• The periodic table is a table that arranges
all the known elements in order of
increasing proton number.

• This order generally coincides with

increasing atomic mass.

3
• A vertical column of elements is called a
group and a horizontal row is known as a
period.

• Elements in the same group have the

same number of valence electrons.

Group number = number of valence electrons

(if the element is in block s and d)

Group number = number of valence electrons + 10

(if the element is in block p)
4
 Transition metals

For example, oxygen and sulphur are both found in group

16 which means that they both have 6 valence electrons. 5
 GROUP
• Main Groups in Periodic Table
– Group 1 : alkali metals (except H)
– Group 2 : alkaline earth metals
– Group 3-11 : transition metals
– Group 17 : halogens
– Group 18 : inert/ noble gases
– Group 12 : Zn, Cd, Hg

6
• The periods in the Periodic Table are
numbered from 1 to 7
• For example, hydrogen and helium are
in Row 1 or Period 1 because their
principal quantum number, n, of the
main electron shell is 1. (H:1s1 ;He: 1s2)

Period number = Principle quantum number

7
 Blocks
• All the elements in the Periodic Table can
be classified into 4 main blocks according
to their valence electrons configuration.

• These main blocks are s, p, d and f block.

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 s- block
• Group 1 and 2
• The filling of valence electrons involve the s
orbital
• Configuration of the valence electrons :
ns1 to ns2
• Eg:
Na : 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s1
11
Ca : 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
20

9
 p-block
• Group 13 to 18
• The filling of valence electrons involve s and
p orbital.
• The configuration of valence electrons:
ns2 np1 to ns2 np6
• Eg.
Al : 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
13
Te : 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2
52
5p4 10
 d-block
• Groups 3 to 12
• The filling of valence electrons involve s and d
orbitals.
• Group 3 to 11 known as Transition metal.
• Configuration of valence electron :
• Eg. (n-1) d1 ns2 to (n-1) d10 ns2
2 2 6 2 6 3 2 or
23V : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
[Ar] 3d3 4s2
where [Ar] = 18 electrons

11
 f-block
• Involve the elements in the series of
lanthanides (Ce to Lu) and actinides (Th
to Lr).

• The filling of valence electrons happen in

the subshell of 4f and 5f.

12
 elements block period group Numbe
r of
velenc
e
electro
n
K : 1s 2 2s2
19 s 4 1 1
2p6 3s2 3p6
4s1
Mg : 1s 2 s 3 2 2
12
2s2 2p6 3s2
P : 1s 2 2s2 p 3 15 5
15
2p6 3s2 3p3
2 2
 Example

• Classify the following elements into its

appropriate group, period and block.
A ……1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
B …….1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5
C …….1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
D …….1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
E …….1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6

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Element Group Period Class/block

A 18 3 Inert gas / block p

Block p
B 17 4
Block s
C 2 4
Transition element/
D block d
5 4
Inert gas / block p

E
18 4

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 3.2 Periodicity

4.2.1 Periodic trends in the size of atom

(atomic radii)
• The size /radius of atom is difficult to be
defined exactly because the electron cloud
has no clear boundary.

• Therefore, the atomic radius is taken as

half of the distance between the nuclei of
two adjacent identical atom.
17
 Radius, r = a/2 (Å)

Size  volume
V = 4/3 πr3 , V  r

a
• Down the group, atomic radii increases.
 Across period, atomic radii decreases.

• Across the period of d-block (transition elements)

the change in atomic radii is small as valence
electrons are filled in the 3d degenerate orbitals.

18
Two factors that influence the changes of
atomic radii in the Periodic Table are:

i. Effective nuclear charge

experienced by the valence
electrons

ii. The principal quantum number, n, of

the valence electrons

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i. Effective nuclear charge (Zeff )
• Electrons around the nucleus experience
different nucleus attraction.

• Those electrons closer to the nucleus

experience a greater attraction than
those that are farther away.

• The actual nuclear charge experienced by

an electron is called the effective nuclear
charge, Zeff

20
• Effective nuclear charge increase, nucleus
attraction stronger, atomic radii decrease

• Across the period, the effective nuclear

charge increases as proton number
increase.

• As a result, the attraction between the

nucleus and valence electrons become
stronger, causing the atomic radius to
decrease. 21
ii. The principal quantum number of the
valence electrons
• As we move down a group, the number of
shells increases, more inner electrons are
present to shield the valence electrons
from the nucleus.

• The valence electrons are farther from the

nucleus.

• Thus, the attraction between the nucleus

and valence electrons decreases, therefore,
the atomic radius increase.
22
• Down a group, the atomic radius increases
because of the increasing principal quantum
number (n) of the valence electron.

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Across
period 3

Across
Period 2

24
The graph shows that :
•Atomic radius decreases when :

* Across a period (from left to right)

* Moving up a group in the periodic table.

•Atomic radius increases when

* Going down the group

• The greater the nucleus attraction, the

smaller the atomic radius.
25
 Example
Arrange the following atoms in order of increasing radius P,Si,N.

Solution
• N and P are in the same group and N is above
P.
• Atomic radius increases as we go down the
group.
• Therefore, the radius of N is smaller than that Group Group
of P 14 15
• Both Si and P are in the third period and Si is N
to the left of P.
• Atomic radius decreases as we move from Si P
left to right.
• Therefore, the radius of P is smaller than Si.
• Thus the order of increasing radius :

N<P<Si
26
3.2.2 Trends in the ionic radii
• When electrons are added to an atom, the
mutual repulsions between them increase.

• This enlarge the domain of electron cloud.

• Therefore, negative ions (anions) are

larger than the atoms from which they are
formed.

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• When electrons are removed from the
valence shell, the electron-electron
repulsions decrease but the nuclear
charge remains the same.

• So the remaining electrons are to be

pulled closer together around the nucleus.

• Therefore, cations are smaller than the

atoms from which they are formed.

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29
 Isoelectronic species

• Isoelectronic species are groups of atoms and

ions which have the same electronic configuration.

Within isoelectronic species:

a) the more positive the charge, the smaller the
species

E.g :
• Na+, Mg2+, Al3+and Si4+ ions are isoelectronic
(10 e) with the electron configurations as
1s2 2s2 2p6.

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 Isoelectronic species with electronic configuration
1s2 2s2 2p6 (10 electrons)

species Number of
proton
Na+ 11
Mg2+ 12
•When proton numberAl3+ increase,13effective nuclear
charge increase. Si4+ 14
•The attraction between nucleus and remaining
electron increase.
•Therefore, the ionic radii decrease.
•The ionic radii of Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+ > Si4+
 Isoelectronic species with electronic
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (18 electrons)

species Number of
proton
P3- 15
2-
•When proton number increase,16effective nuclear
S
charge increase. Cl- 17
•The attraction between nucleus and remaining
electron increase.
•Therefore, the ionic radii decrease.
•The ionic radii of Cl- < S2- < P3-
 Exercise

Na+,Si4+ ,Mg2+, N3- ,O2- ,Al3+ and F- are

isoelectronic with the electronic configuration as
1s2 2s2 2p6. Arrange in an descending order
the size of those isoelectronic species.

Answer :
N3- > O2- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+> Si4+

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34
3.2.3 Trends in the ionization
energies
• The ionization energy (IE) is the minimum
energy required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom in its ground state.
 The first ionization energy (IE ) is the
1
minimum energy required to remove the first
electron from the atom in its ground state.
E.g:
energy + X(g) → X+(g) + e- ΔH = IE1

35
i) Ionization energy across a period :

 The effective nuclear charge increases, the

atomic size decreases.

 Electrons are held tightly to the nucleus

thus it is difficult to remove the first electron.

 Therefore the first ionisation energy is high.

It can be said that the first ionization energy

increases from left to right.

However, there are some irregularities in the trend.36

 ‫٭‬Be ■N
♦B ▲O

■
▲
‫٭‬
♦

37
 Anomalous cases in Period 2
a) Between group 2 and 13

• 5 B : 1s2 2s2 2p1 in group 13 has a lower IE

1
than 4Be: 1s2 2s2 in group 2.

• Be loses a 2s electron while B loses a 2p

electron.

• Less energy is needed to remove an electron

from partially-filled 2p orbital in B than to
remove an electron from fully/completely filled
2s orbital in Be.
38
b) Between group 15 and 16
• O (group16) has lower IE1 than N (group 15)
• 7N :1s2 2s2 2p3 (the half-filled 2p orbital )

O :1s 2 2s2 2p4( the partially-filled 2p orbital)

8

• When N loses an electron it must come from the

half-filled 2p orbital which is more stable than
that of electron of the partially-filled orbital in O.
• As a result, the first ionization energy of N is
higher than of O.

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ii) Ionization energy going down the group
• Going down the group, the atomic size
increases as the energy level, n increases.

• Therefore the outer electrons are farther

from the nucleus and are held less tightly
(weaker attraction) by the nucleus.

• Thus, it is easy to remove the first electron.

• Hence the Ionization Energy decreases

down the group.
40
• Second ionization energy (IE2) is the minimum
energy required to remove an electron from a
positive gaseous ion.
X+(g) → X2+(g) + e-
• When an electron is removed from a neutral
atom, the mutual repulsion among the remaining
electrons decrease.

• Since the nuclear charge remain constant, the

electron are held tightly to the nucleus.

• Therefore more energy is needed to remove

another electron from the positively charged ion.
41
• Thus, ionization energies always increase in the
following order :

IE1< IE2< IE3< IE4<…..

• Although the removal of a subsequent electron

from an atom requires an increment amount of
energy but it may not be consistence.

• We can determine the electronic configuration of

the valence electron for an element by using the
ionization energy.

42
 Example 1

• 4Be
• The ionization energies (kJmol-1) of Beryllium
are shown below.

IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4

899 1757 14850 21005

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• The ratio between the ionization energies are:

IE 2 1757
  1.95
IE1 899

IE3 14850
  8.45
IE 2 1757

IE 4 21005
  1.41
IE3 14850

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• A sharp increase in ionization energy
occurs when an inner-orbital electron is
removed.

• The sharp increase is in IE3. It means the

3rd electron occupies the inner shell.

• Therefore, there are 2 valence electrons.

Hence, Be is in group 2 with valence
configuration ns2.

45
 Example 2

• Five successive ionization energies (kJmol-1)

of atom M is shown below:

IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5

800 1580 3230 4360 16000

• Determine
i) the electron configuration of the valence
electron.
ii) the group number in the periodic table.
46
• The sharp increase is in IE5, this means
the 5th electron occupies the inner shell.

• Therefore, there are 4 valence electrons.

• Hence, the valence electronic

configuration for M is ns2 np2 in group 14
of the periodic table.

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Trends in the electronegativity

• Electronegativity is the relative tendency of

an atom to attract electrons to itself when
bonded with another atom.

• Electronegativity increases up a group and

across a period. This follows the trends for
ionization energy and electron affinity.

48
a) Across period
• The nuclear charge increase
• The atomic size decrease
• Hence, the nucleus attraction stronger
• Therefore, the electronegativity
increase

49
b) Down a group

• The principle quantum number increase

• The atomic size increase
• Hence, weaker nuclear attraction
• Therefore electronegativity decrease

50
Trends in the melting or boiling point

• The melting or boiling point depends on

the types of intermolecular forces that exist
between the molecules.

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 Across the period

• Melting and boiling point of the 3rd period

elements

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Melting 98 650 660 1410 44 120 -101 -189
point
(oC)
Boiling 890 1120 2450 2360 280 445 -34 -186
point
(oC)

52
• The variation of melting and boiling point of
elements in the 3rd period can be discussed
as:
(a) Metallic structure (Na to Al)
(b) Gigantic covalent structure (Si)
(c) Simple molecular structure (P to Ar)

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a)Metallic structure (Na to Al)

Metal has positive metal ions attracted to the

electrons sea which form the metallic bonding.

Strength of metallic bonding is proportional to the

number of valence electrons.
e e e e
The more valence Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+
electrons, the stronger e e e e
Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+
the metallic bond and e e e e
the higher the melting Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+
/ boiling point

54
b) Gigantic covalent structure (Si)

• Silicon has a gigantic covalent structure.

• Melting and boiling point of Si is very high

because high energy is needed to break the
infinity amount of the strong covalent bond.

55
c) Simple molecular structure ( P to Ar)
• The non-metal that exist as molecules of P4, S8,
Cl2 and Ar (monoatom).
• The covalent bond between the atoms is very
strong but the intermolecular force (Van der
Waals), is very weak.
• The strength of Van der Waals force is
proportional to molecular size (relative molecular
weight)
– Molecular size: Ar < Cl2 < P4 < S8
– therefore
melting / boiling point : Ar < Cl < P < S 56
Melting and boiling points down the group

Group 1
• The size increase, the attraction between
nucleus and electron sea become weaker.
• Therefore, less energy is needed to
overcome the attraction.
• Thus, melting and boiling point
decrease.

57
Group 17
• The size of molecules increase, the
intermolecular forces (Van der Waals) become
stronger.

• Therefore, more energy is needed to overcome

the attraction
- Thus, melting and boiling point increase.

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Metallic character

• Metallic properties are:

- shiny with various colours and most are silvery.
- malleable and ductile
- good thermal and electric conductor

• Generally, metallic character :

- Increases down a group
- Decreases across the period

59
• The easier to the electrons to be removed
from an atom, the more metallic the
element.

• Therefore metallic character increases down

a group and decreases across a period.

Metalloids
metal nonmetal
(semimetal)

60
Acid-base behavior of oxides of Period 3
For Period 3:
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

• When react with oxygen :

(a) Na & Mg form basic oxide

(b) Al form amphoteric (both acidic and

basic) oxide.

(c) Si, P, S & Cl form acidic oxide

61
• Na reacts with oxygen to form a basic oxide.
4Na (s) + O2 (g)→2Na2O (s)
• The oxide will produce base solution when react
with water.
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)

• Mg burns in oxygen to form a basic oxide, MgO.

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) →2MgO (s)
MgO (s) + 2HCl (aq) →MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
base acid
62
• Al forms amphoteric oxide, can react either
with an acid or a base.
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3 H2O (l)
base acid

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq)

acid base sodium aluminate

63
Si, P, S & Cl burn in oxygen to form acidic oxide.

Si :
Si (s) + O2 (g) → SiO2 (s)
SiO2 (s) + NaOH (aq) → Na2SiO3(aq)+H2O (l)
acid base

64
P:
P4 (s) + 3O2 (g) → P4O6 (s)

P4O6 (s) + 6H2O (l) → 4H3PO3 (aq)

phosphorus acid

65
S:
S (s) + O2 (g) →SO2 (g)
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)
sulfurous acid

Cl :
Cl2O7 (g) + H2O (l) → 2HClO4 (aq)
hypochloric acid

66