Society for Computer Technology and Research’s

Pune Institute of Computer Technology

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Subject: Fiber Optic Communication

Class: B.E.E&TE
A.Y. 2022-23
Semester: VIII
Unit No: 02
Unit II : Optical Sources (7hrs)
Prepared by
Mr.M.A.Chimanna
Mr.Shahadev Hake
Ms.V.A.Patil 1
 Society for Computer Technology and Research’s

Pune Institute of Computer Technology

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

DISCLAIMER
This presentation is created as a reference material for the students
of
BE- E & TE , PICT
(AY 2022-23, SEM-VIII )
It is restricted only for internal use and
any circulation is strictly prohibited
1
 Disclaimer

• The material for the presentation has been compiled from various
sources such as books, tutorials (online, offline), lecture notes,
several resources available on Internet. The information contained
in this lecture/ presentation is for general information and
education purpose only. The information shared through this
presentation material should be used for educational purpose only.
 Unit II : Optical Sources

Optical Sources: Introduction, wavelength and material consideration (direct & indirect band gap
semiconductors); requirements from optical sources for telecommunication.

LED: principle of working, quantum efficiency, optical output power characteristics, spectral
width, effect of temperature on characteristics, modulation bandwidth, analog modulation, digital
modulation, LED analog transmitter.

Semiconductor Laser Diodes: absorption, spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, concept of

population inversion and optical feedback, output power characteristics of LASER; Bias point and
amplitude modulation range for analog applications of LEDs & laser diodes, comparison of LEDs &
Lasers.
 Unit II : Optical Sources (7 Hrs)

• Optical Sources: Introduction, wavelength and material consideration (direct & indirect band gap
semiconductors)
1 Hr • Requirements from optical sources for telecommunication.

• LED: principle of working, Quantum efficiency, Optical output power characteristics

2 Hrs • Spectral width, effect of temperature on characteristics, modulation bandwidth

• Analog modulation, digital modulation, LED analog transmitter

1 Hr

• Semiconductor Laser Diodes: absorption, spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, concept of population
inversion and optical feedback.
2 Hrs
• Output power characteristics of LASER
• Bias point and amplitude modulation range for analog applications of LEDs & laser diodes
1 Hr • Comparison of LEDs & Lasers.
5
 Unit II : Optical Sources: Teaching Methodology

Sr. No Content Duration Text/ Reference Page No. Remark

Book
T1 4.1.3-4.1.4 T1
Optical Sources:Introduction, R4 4.2.2 Numerical 4.3, 4.4
wavelength and material pp.134-135 pp. 146-147
consideration (direct & indirect pp. 138-141 Assessment can be taken for Group
1 band gap semiconductors) 1 Hr pp.143-147 A Tutorial on Optical Sources
Requirements from optical 5.1,5.2.5.3 Problems
sources for telecommunication. T2 6.1 4.3 - 4.5, pp. 183
pp.281-282
R1 9.1 T1
LED: principle of working
pp. 331-336 Numerical 4.5, pp. 149
Quantum efficiency
T1 4.2.3 Assessment can be taken for Group
Optical output power
pp.147-150 A Tutorial on Optical Sources
2 characteristics 2 Hrs T2 7.4 Problem 4.6, pp. 183
Spectral width, effect of
pp.399-406 T2
temperature on characteristics,
Example 7.1, pp.379-380
modulation bandwidth
Problems 7.6 - 7.8 pp 413-414
6
 Unit II : Optical Sources: Teaching Methodology Contd.

Sr. No Content Duration Text/ Reference Page No. Remark

Book
7.5 Group C
Analog modulation, digital T2 pp. 412-413 Study of current trends in: optical sources
1 Hr
3 modulation, LED analog 11.2.2 Survey of Sources and Source Transmitter
transmitter 580-587 Modules used in optical Industry
591-592
T1
T1 pp 152-157 Numerical 4.7 pp.157
Semiconductor Laser Diodes: 2 Hrs
(No Numerical 4.8, 4.9 pp.161
absorption, spontaneous
4 derivation, Problem 4.9,4.10, pp. 183
emission, stimulated emission,
Only Formula)
concept of population inversion
4.3.3- 4.3.4
and optical feedback.
pp. 160-162
Output power characteristics of T1 pp. 158
LASER 4.5
1 Hr
Bias point and amplitude T1 pp. 177 -179
5 modulation range for analog
2/ /202
applications of LEDs & laser Prof. Mrs. P.S. D eshpande, PVG'sCOET & G KPWIOM,Pune 8
3 3
 Unit II : Optical Sources
Introduction: Importance of Optical sources
•Two major technological breakthroughs led to success of light wave systems
- Glass fibers with low attenuation
- Semiconductor Light Sources which can couple efficiently in the above fibers.

Its fundamental function is to convert electrical energy in the form of a current into optical
energy (light) in an efficient manner which allows the light output to be effectively
launched or coupled into the optical fiber.
Three main types of optical light source are:
•Wideband “Continuous Spectra” Sources(Incandescent lamps)
• LED
• Monochromatic coherent sources.(LASER)

Reference T2
 Requirements from optical sources for telecommunication
• Size and configuration compatibility
•Linearity
•Emission wavelengths in Low loss windows of Optical Communication
•Signal modulation over wide bandwidth
•Couple sufficient optical power in fiber
•Narrow spectral bandwidth
•Stable optical output
•Cheap and reliable

Reference T2 6.1 pp.281-282

State and explain the major requirements of good optical sources. BT_2
 Wavelength and material consideration
•In optical transmission, most important considerations
-Absorption: contributes to attenuation at different wavelengths
- Extrinsic absorption losses are much reduced as fiber manufacturing methods are advanced .
-Major contributors are Intrinsic losses like Rayleigh scattering ad Infrared absorption losses which define
transmission window for optical communication in 0.7 to 1.8 µm in current Sio2-GeO2 Fiber. OH- contents
should be kept low so as to reduce that absorption losses because of it.

-Bandwidth: Dependent on Rise times of various components in the link.

-Chromatic dispersion is dominant factor in SM fibers which limits the BW
-Depends on Spectral width of the source.
-Zero Material Dispersion Wavelength

Reference R4 Point 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

 Wavelength and material consideration

Reference R4 Point 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

 Wavelength and material consideration
•The wavelength of the light emitted, and hence the colour, depends on the band gap energy of
the materials forming the p-n junction.

•The emitted photon energy is approximately equal to the band gap energy of the semiconductor.
The following equation relates the wavelength and the energy band gap.

hν = Eg
hc/λ = Eg
λ = hc/ Eg or λ(in µm) = 1.24/ Eg(eV) or λ(in nm) = 1240/ Eg(eV)

Where
h is Plank’s constant
c is the speed of the light
Eg is the energy band gap

Thus, a semiconductor with a 2 eV band-gap emits light at about 620 nm, in the Red.
A 3eV band-gap material would emit at 414 nm, in the Violet.
Reference T1 pp.143-147
 Wavelength and material consideration

Most of the light sources contain III-V ternary & quaternary compounds.

•Ga1-xAlxAs by varying ratio x of Aluminium Arsenide to Gallium Arsenide it is possible to

control the band-gap energy from 1.4eV to 1.8eV and thereby the emission wavelength
over the range of 800 nm to 900 nm. The spectral width is around 20 to 40 nm.
The energy gap in electron volts for values of x in between zero and 0.37( the direct band
gap region)for ternary compounds can be found from the formula.

Eg(in eV)= 1.424 + 1.226x + 0.266 x2

Important Think to Note:

Wavelength range covered by this ternary compound it outside the minimum dispersion and minimum
attenuation wavelengths.
Quaternary system has emerged as better alternative to GaAs or GaAlAs
 Wavelength and material consideration

• In1-xGaxAsyP1-y changing 0<x, y is approximately 2.20x, the emission wavelength can be controlled over the
range of 920 nm to 1600 nm. The spectral width varies from 70 nm to 180 nm when the wavelength changes
from 1300 nm to 1600 nm.

Eg(in eV)= 1.35 -0.75y +0.12y2

Group III elements like Al, Ga and In and Group V elements: P, As, Sb can be used

Reference T1 pp.143-147

Reference R4 Point 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

 Wavelength and material consideration (Numericals)

• Numerical Example 4.3

A particular Ga1–xAlxAs laser is constructed with a material ratio x = 0.07.
Find (a) the bandgap of this material; (b) the peak emission wavelength.

•Solution:
Eg = 1.424 + 1.266(0.07) + 0.66(0.07)2 = 1.51 eV
λ(in µm)= 1.240/1.51 = 0.82 mm = 820 nm

Reference T1 pp.146
Reference T1
16
Wavelength and material consideration

17
 Direct & indirect band gap semiconductors
• Direct and Indirect Band Semiconductors
Semiconductors are classified as either direct-band gap or indirect-band gap materials depending on the shape of the
band gap as a function of the momentum k.
In Direct band bap the electron and hole have the same momentum value which ensures direct radiative recombination
between the bands
In Indirect band gap materials, the conduction-band minimum and the valence-band maximum energy levels occur at
different values of momentum.

Fig. 4.7 (a) Electron recombination and the associated photon emission for a direct-bandgap material; (b) electron recombination for indirect-
bandgap materials requires a phonon of energy Eph and momentum kph
Reference T1 pp. 138-141
Q. Distinguish direct and indirect band- gap semiconductor materials. BT_2
LED:Working Principle: Forward Biased Condition

20
 Light Emitting Diode(LED):Spontaneous Emission
Characteristicsa Chracteristics
• Forward biased p-n junction emits light through SPONTANEOUS EMISSION.
RADIATIVE RECOMBINATION of electron-hole pairs in the depletion region regenerates
LIGHT.
•Emitted light is incoherent and non directional
•Wide spectral width (20-80 nm)
•Large angular spread
•Justification and Understanding of above points
 Quantum Efficiency

Internal quantum efficiency is the ratio between the radiative recombination rate and the
sum of radiative and non radiative recombination rates

The radiative recombination lifetime is τr =n/Rr

And the nonradiative recombination lifetime is τnr= n/Rnr

The Bulk recombination lifetime is

 Quantum Efficiency

If the current injected into the LED is I, then the total number of recombinations per
second is

Which yields

Rr is the total number of photons generated per second and each photon has an energy
hv, then the optical power generated internally to the LED is
 External Quantum Efficiency

External efficiency = photons emitted from LED / Number of internally generated photons

Light emission cone

Reference T1 pp.150
 External Quantum Efficiency
To find the external quantum efficiency, reflection effects at the surface of LED also
need to be considered
Only a fraction of light falling within the cone defined by critical angle will cross the
interface
External quantum efficiency can then be calculated from the expression where
T(φ) is the Fresnel transmission coefficient or Fresnel transmissivity
n1 is refractive index of the semiconductor material
n2 is refractive index of the outside material, which nominally is air with n2 = 1.0.

Reference T1 pp.150
 External Quantum Efficiency
The expression for normal incidence is

Assuming outside medium as Air and letting n1=n

The external quantum efficiency is approximated as

Optical power emitted from the LED

Reference T1 pp.150, Numerical 4.6 pp 151 can be taken

 Quantum Efficiency
Numerical: Example 4.5
Example 4.5 A double-hetero junction InGaAsP LED emitting at a peak wavelength of 1310
nm has radiative and non radiative recombination times of 30 and 100 ns, respectively.
The drive current is 40 mA. Find (a) the bulk recombination time; (b) the internal quantum
efficiency; and (c) the internal power level.
Solution:

Reference T1 4.2.3 pp.147-150

 Output Power

Reference T2 pp.399 ( Figures 7.16 and 7.17 in 2nd Edition)

 Output Power

Reference T2 pp.400 ( Figures 7.16 and 7.17 in 2nd Edition)

 Output Power
•The linear relationship(P-I) holds only over a limited current range.
•Due to linear characteristics, LED is used as a source in analog modulation.
•At higher currents the responsivity of the device decreases because of the increase in the
active-region temperature. Internal quantum energy is temperature dependent.
•At higher temperatures, there is an increase in nonradiative recombination rates.
 Spectral Width

Reference T2 pp.402-404 ( Figures 7.18,7.19 in 2nd Edition)

 Spectral Width

Reference T2 pp.402-404 ( Figure 7.20 in 2nd Edition)

 Modulation Bandwidth:

Reference T2 pp.402-404 ( Figure 7.21 in 2nd Edition)

 Modulation Bandwidth: Importance
•Main reason for using LEDs for fiber links is the Direct Intensity modulation with
current.
•Carrier recombination time, parasitic elements like space charge capacitance of depletion
region and diffusion capacitance, extrinsic parameters like RC time constant limit
modulation rate of the LED and cause increase in the LED rise time.
•Why it is important?
LED Rise time becomes a critical parameter in digital links as it limits the datarate. Rise
time budgeting
LED capacitances consideration while designing High speed Drive circuits.
Reference T2 pp.402-404 ( Figure 7.21 in 2nd Edition), R1 5.4.4
 Modulation Bandwidth
•The modulation bandwidth in optical communications may be defined in either
electrical or optical terms.
•Electrical Bandwidth: The electrical 3 dB point or the frequency at which the output
electric power is reduced by 3 dB with respect to the input electric power.
•Optical Bandwidth: 3 dB bandwidth of the modulated optical carrier or the
frequency where detected power becomes half of its low frequency value.
•As optical sources operate down to d.c. level we only consider the high-frequency 3
dB point, the modulation bandwidth being the frequency range between zero and this
high-frequency 3 dB point

Reference T2 pp.402-404 ( Figure 7.21 in 2nd Edition)

 Modulation Bandwidth
•Electrical bandwidth: The ratio of the electric output power to the electric input power in
decibels RE dB is given by:
REdB = 10 * log10 Electric power out (at the detector) / Electric power in (at the Source)
REdB = 10 log10 (Iout2/Rout) / (Iin2/Rin)
The electrical 3 dB points occur when the ratio of electric powers shown above is 1/2 .
Hence it follows that this must occur when

Iout2/ Iin2 = ½ or Iout/ Iin = 1/√2

So in the electrical regime the bandwidth may be defined by the frequency when the output
current has dropped to 1/√2 or 0.707 of the input current to the system.

Reference T2 pp.402-404
 Modulation Bandwidth
•Optical bandwidth: The ratio of the optical output power to the optical input power in
decibels RE dB is given by:
REdB = 10 * log10 Optical power out (at the detector) / Optical power in (at the Source)
REdB = 10 log10 (Iout) / (Iin)
The optical 3 dB points occur when the ratio of currents shown above is 1/2 .

Iout/ Iin = ½ or Iout/ Iin = 1/2

So in the optical regime the bandwidth may be defined by the frequency when the output
current has dropped to 1/2 or 0.5 of the input current to the system. This corresponds to an
electric power attenuation of 6 dB.

Reference T2 pp.402-404
 Analog modulation, digital modulation, LED analog transmitter
•Analog and Digital Modulation

Reference T2 pp.581-593, Figure 11.1 in 2nd Edition

 Analog modulation, digital modulation, LED analog transmitter
•LED analog transmitter
For analog transmission the output from light source should follow variations in input signal
in both amplitude and phase. This requires linearity characteristics.

Reference T2 pp.581-587,591-592 Figure 11.8 in 2nd Edition

 LED structures used in Optical Fiber Communication
1) Double Heterojunction LEDs

Reference T1 pp.384
 LED structures used in Optical Fiber Communication

2) Planar LED 3) Dome LED

Reference T2 pp. 385-386

 LED structures used in Optical Fiber Communication

4) Surface Emitter LEDs 5) Edge Emitter LEDs

Reference T1 pp.144
 LED Packages

Group C Lab
Study of current trends in: optical sources, detectors, fibers for telecommunication,
mux-demux, filters, isolators, circulators, couplers, connectors, optical amplifiers etc
and the measuring instruments and standards (Unit 1,2,3,4,5,6)

44
 LED Transmitter Modules

Reference www.EXFO.com

2/3/2023 Prof. Mrs. P.S. Deshpande, PVG'sCOET & GKPWIOM,Pune 45

 Drawbacks of LED
• Large line(Spectral) width (30-40 nm)
• Low output power
• Low E/O conversion efficiency

Advantages
• Robust
• Linear
• Simple construction and operation
• Low cost
 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation(LASER): NEED

• Requirements of long haul system capacity: Increasing demand day by day

:Requires very narrow spectral width LASER
• Lasers for long distance transmission
• WDM, DWDM technologies : Challenge for Laser Design
• Channel separation is very small so low spectral width LASERs are needed.
• LD radiation properties like power, coherence, directivity and narrow spectral
width made LASER best choice for long Haul communication.

Reference R1 pp 350

47
 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation(LASER)
•Semiconductor Laser Diodes: absorption, spontaneous emission, stimulated emission,
concept of population inversion and optical feedback

Reference T1 pp 152-157
Principle
SPONTANEOUS STIMULATED
ABSORPTION
EMISSIONS EMISSIONS

49
Characteristics of Stimulated Emission

• The spectral width of radiated source is narrow.

• Current to light conversion occurs with high efficiency and LASER
has high output power.
• Stimulated light is well directed.
• The radiation is highly coherent.
 Optical Feedback
•Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Optical feedback

Reference R1 pp 363
 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation(LASER)
•Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Concept of population inversion
•Condition needed for lasing
•In thermal equilibrium the density of excited electrons is very small. Stimulated emission will exceed
absorption only if the population of the excited states is greater than that of the ground state. This condition is
known as Population inversion.
•Population inversion is achieved by various “pumping” techniques.
•The number of excited electrons decide Gain of semiconductor
•But LASER diode introduce some loss
•Many photons are absorbed within the semiconductor material before they can escape to create radiation
•Mirror do not reflect 100% of incident photons
•Loss is constant for given diode but gain can be changed

Reference T1 pp 152-157
•Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Lasing Threshold

•gth: Optical Gain, α = Absorption Coefficient, L: Length of Cavity,R1,R2: Reflectivities of end

facets
•Numerical Example 4.7
Assume for GaAs that R1 = R2 = R = 0.32 for uncoated facets (i.e., 32 percent of the radiation is reflected at a
facet) and α 10 cm–1. What is the gain threshold for a 500-mm long laser diode?
Solution
Using above equation

Reference T1 pp 152-157
•Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Fabry Perot Cavity
•The probability of photon producing a stimulated emission event can be increased by
reflecting back through the medium several times.

A device is normally fashioned in such a way that the 2 ends are made highly reflective

This is term an oscillator cavity or Fabry Perot cavity

The radiations from laser are generated in this cavity.

The dimensions are:
250 to 500 µm long(Longitudinal dimension)
5 to 12 µm wide(Lateral Dimension)
0.1 to 0.2 µm thick(Transverse dimension)

Reference T1 pp 152-157
Reference T1 pp 154
Reference T1 pp 154-155
Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Output power characteristics of LASER

Reference T1 pp 158,160,161
Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Output power characteristics of LASER and Temperature
Effects

Reference T1 pp 174
Semiconductor Laser Diodes: External Quantum Efficiency

ηi is the internal quantum efficiency. This is not a well defined quantity in laser diodes, but most measurements show
that it is 0.6–0.7 at room temperature

Experimentally, ηext is calculated from the straight-line portion of the curve for the emitted optical power P versus drive
current I

Eg is the bandgap energy in electron volts

λ is the emission wavelength in micrometers

Reference T1 pp 158,160,161
LASER Modes
Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Resonant Frequencies
Cavity resonates when integer number of half wavelengths span the region
between the Fabry-Perot mirror surfaces in other words resonator supports only
those wavelengths which forms a standing wave pattern.

2L/λ = N if L= 0.4 mm and λ =1300 nm then N= 615

So resonator will support wavelength of 2L/N= =1300.8nm
But also 2L/(N+/- 1), 2L/( N+/-2) etc so many wavelengths will satisfy
above condition will exist

Frequency spacing

Wavelength spacing

Reference T1 pp 158,160,161, Numerical 4.8,

4.9, R1
Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Resonant Frequencies

Reference T1 pp 162
 LASER structures used in Optical Fiber Communication

1) Distributed Feedback LASER 2)Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting LASER

Reference T1 pp. 155, pp.167

 LASER Packages

Group C Lab
Study of current trends in: optical sources, detectors, fibers for
telecommunication, mux-demux, filters, isolators, circulators,
couplers, connectors, optical amplifiers etc and the measuring
instruments and standards (Unit 1,2,3,4,5,6)

65
 LASER Modules

Reference www.EXFO.com

66
Semiconductor Laser Diodes: Bias point and amplitude modulation range for analog
applications of LEDs & laser diodes

Reference T1 pp 178
 LED Vs. Laser Specifications

Specifications LED LASER

Output Power Linearly proportional to drive current proportional to current above threshold

Working Principle Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission

Current Drive Current 50 to 100 mA (peak) Threshold current 5 to 40 mA

Coupled Power Moderate High

Speed Slower Faster

Fiber Type Multimode only Single mode and Multimode

Ease of use Easier Harder

Light Ouput Non Coherent, Non Directional Coherent, Highly Directional

Spectral width Wider Narrower

Modulation bandwidth Moderate (tens of KHz to tens of MHz) High (tens of MHz to tens of GHz)

E/O Conversion efficiency 10 to 20 % 30 to 70 %

Cost Low Moderate to high

2/3/2023 Prof. Mrs. P.S. Deshpande, PVG'sCOET & GKPWIOM,Pune 68

Important Points to be noted:(From Exam Point of View)
• Understanding the requirements of good optical source

• Understanding the specifications of light sources used like emission wavelength,

spectral width, material used, rise time and fall time. Understanding of data sheet is
must.

• To know the concept of electrical and optical characteristics. Should be able to mark
the cut in voltage and operating point on electrical and optical characteristics
respectively.

• Understanding the procedure and theory behind it. That is the method used to
perform the experiment

• For theory part need to know about working principle of LEDs and LASERS and the
structures used in optical communication.
2/3/2023 Prof. Mrs. P.S. Deshpande, PVG'sCOET & GKPWIOM,Pune 72
 References Used

Text Books:
T1] Gerd Keiser, “Optical Fiber Communications” 4 th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill.

T2] John M Senior, “Optical Fiber Communications” 2 nd Edition, PHI.

. 1.
Reference Books:
R1] Djafar K Mynbaev and Lowell L Scheiner, “Fiber Optic Communications Technology”, 1 st Edition, Pearson Education.

R3] Govind P Agrawal, “Fiber Optic Communication Systems”, 3 rd Edition, Wiley India
Web References
www.exfo.com
www.finisar.com
www.theFOA.org
https://www.lumentum.com ›
e-PGPathshala : MHRD project with the National Mission on Education through ICT.