ZANDRO P.

ANTIOLA

09168826149
zantoot1003@gmail.com
GOOGLE CLASSROOM

Quantitative Research

Class code: 082vvvb

 “ Writing is easy.
All you do is stare
at a blank sheet of
paper until drops
of blood form on
your forehead.”
Gene Fowler (1890 -
1960)
HOW TO DO RESEARCH
THOUGHT FOR THE DAY: WHAT WE
WANT TO AVOID

“Your manuscript is both good and original; but

the part that is good is not original, and the
part that is original is not good.”

Samuel Johnson
 Research is an
ORGANIZED
and SYSTEMATIC way
of FINDING ANSWERS
to QUESTIONS
Definition of Research

 Research is a careful search

 Research is about exploration, discovery, and curiosity.

 Research is all about the questions

 RESEARCH IS A SYSTEMATIC
INVESTIGATION OF NEW FACTS
LEADING TO A DISCOVERY
OF NEW IDEAS
(Sanchez, 1999)
 Research is an
ORGANIZED
and SYSTEMATIC way
of FINDING ANSWERS
to QUESTIONS
 ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or
method in going about doing research. It is
a planned procedure, not a spontaneous
one. It is focused and limited to a specific
scope.
 SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set
of procedures and steps which you will
follow. There are certain things in the
research process which are always done in
order to get the most accurate results.
 FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all
research. Whether it is the answer to a
hypothesis or even a simple question,
research is successful when we find
answers. Sometimes the answer is no, but
it is still an answer.
 QUESTIONS are central to research. If there
is no question, then the answer is of no
use.
Research is focused on relevant,
useful, and important questions. Without a
question, research has no focus, drive, or
purpose.
 Research
is used as
Basis of knowledge
 Thinking about research
project

 What is my research?
 Why do I want to do research?
 Who are my research participants?
 Where am I going to do the research?
 When am I going to do the research?
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Systematic
2. Objective
3. Feasible
4. Empirical
5. Clear
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

 SYSTEMATIC– Consider the MACRO

and MICRO systems

 TheMACRO system is the composition of

chapters in an organized, logical , and
scientific manner.
 TheMICRO system is the formulation of
the of the detailed content of each
element.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

 OBJECTIVE – Research is an
objective process of analyzing
phenomena of importance to
any of the different
professional and academic
fields of disciplines
(Nieswiadomy, 2004)
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

 FEASIBLE – In any profession, any

problem of extraordinary nature
(phenomenon) that directly or
indirectly affects the profession is a
feasible problem to study.
In settings like community,
school, or workplace, unusual
phenomena happen and turn
into potential problems.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

 EMPIRICAL – There should be

adequate pieces of evidence
discussing the different variables
used in the study.
Detailed evidences
Referencing of facts
Proper citation
Avoiding plagiarism
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

 CLEAR – The choice of variables used in the study should be

explained by the researcher.

Enrich review of literature – lots

of theories
Sufficient indicators per variable
Variables taken from varied
sources
Properly referenced
 Why research?
(purpose of research)

 To address issues by adding knowledge in the existing knowledge

 To identify the gap between theory and practice as well as policy and practice
 To improve in the existing situation
 To take precaution for the future
 To identify the risk
 To generate knowledge, develop and test theory
 To seek new policies, ideas and creation
 Goals in conducting research

 To produce evidenced-based practice

 Every discipline or institution must provide the best practice of
operation based on research studies
 Effective and efficient practices or operations are products of
research
 To establish credibility in the profession
 A profession is defined by the body of knowledge it utilizes, which
is distinct from that of the other disciplines
 Research is essential for a profession to produce new procedures,
programs, and practices
 Goals in conducting research

 To observe accountability for the profession

 Every action conducted by a professional must have a
rationale
 All
tasks must be carried out with circumspect care and
awareness that everything has to be done efficiently
 To promote cost-effectiveness through
documentation
 The findings of research must be shared with and utilized
by the individuals, group, or community for which the
study was intended.
 Activity 1

Answer the following:

1. What is research?
2. Explain any three basic characteristics of research.
3. Discuss the goals of research.
4. Differentiate types of research.
5. Why is research important to your course?
Ethics in research

 Importance of Ethics in Research

 Ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge and truth and

avoidance of errors.
 Important values are trust, accountability, mutual respect, and
fairness…
 Many of the ethical norms help ensure that researchers are held
accountable to the public…
 Helps build public support for research…
Research Ethics

Participant Bill of Rights

 Respecting
Right to be briefed about study
Participant
Know the purpose of the study and any
Rights social consequences
Right to refuse or withdraw from study
at any time
Right to anonymity
Right to gain something from the study

29
Rights of research participant

 Voluntary
participation
 Informed consent
 Risk of harm
 Confidentiality
 Anonymity
 General/Basic Ethical
Principles

RESPECT FOR PERSON

BENEFICENCE
NON-MALEFICENCE
JUSTICE
 Ethical considerations
 Right to refuse to be involved
 Right to stop being involved
 Strategies for achieving and maintaining
support from participants (schools,
universities)
 Training others to implement the
treatment.
 No harming of students (minimal risk)
 Subject’s right to privacy
 Parental consent
 Collecting data without permission
 Sharing of data
 Ethical codes and policies for research

 Honesty
 Objectivity
 Integrity
 Care
 Openness
 Respect for intellectual property
 Confidentiality
 Responsible publication
 Responsible monitoring
 Ethical codes and policies for
research

 Respect for colleagues

 Social responsibility
 Non-discrimination
 Competence
 Legality
 Human subject’s protection
Important ethical issues in conducting
research

 Institutional Review Boards

 Professional Associations
 Ethical Practices throughout the Research Process
 Some Ethical Issues in Data Collection
 Some Ethical Issues in Data Reporting
Ethics Review Committee

Review the
scientific merit and ethical
acceptability
of any research involving
human participants
The Research Title , Sources and
Considerations
The research title

 Generally the title

 should summarize the main idea of the paper
 Should be a concise statement of the main
topic
 Must include the major variable/s
 Should show relationship of the main variables
under study
 Must be self explanatory
 Writing a Title
Importance of the title

>The title introduces the work to a

reader.
>The title should give an impression
that the contents are desirable and deserve
a deeper look.
>A reader should be able to tell at
once what the paper is all about.
 How to write a title

 It summarizes the content of the entire body

 It is a frame of reference for the whole study
 It enables you to claim the study as your own
 It
helps other researchers to refer to your
work as they survey some theories themselves
 Technique in making
the title

One way of making the title is to

list the most important findings and
compose the findings into a short eye-
catching title, hence, the title is finalized
when the whole paper is finished.
 Bad titles have generally more than 12
words. Around 10 words is good but a
shorter title is better. Desirable titles
contain few or no unimportant words such
as "Effects", "Evaluation", "Study“,
"Experiments“, "Trials", "Observations",
"Investigations", "Result", "Test“, "Factors",
and "Analysis".
 Sample research titles

1. Work Values and Job Satisfaction Level of Employees (Corpuz, 2010)

2. Managerial Skills and Difficulties of Elementary School Managers
(Lao, 2007)
3. Leadership Behaviors of Academic Deans and Teaching Efficacy of
College Instructors (Sarmiento, 2009)
4. Principal’s Leadership Capacities as Perceived by Teachers (Garcia,
2009)
5. The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School
Managers: Basis for a Human Intervention Program (Cristobal)
 Sample research titles

1. ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES IN THE BOARD

EXAMINATION SUBJECTS IN
THE SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE
2. JOB SATISFACTION AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
TEACHERS
3. Job Satisfaction and Job Performance of the Zamboanga
City Policemen
4. Criminal Intent and Educational Aspiration of
Disadvantaged School-aged Hawkers in Zamboanga City
Sample research titles

 The Crime Reducing Effect of Education

 The Effect of Education on Crime: Evidence from Prison

Inmates,
Arrests, and Self-Reports

 Affective and cognitive empathy as mediators of gender

differences in cyber and traditional bullying
Sample research titles

 Major Sources of Stress Among Executives of the Top Ten

Corporations in Zamboanga City
 Cost Benefits Analysis of Hiring Contractual Workers by Fast
Foods Restaurants
 Middle Managers’ Leadership Dimensions and Job Satisfaction of
Government Officials
 Formulate Problem
Stages
in the Determine Research Design
Research Design Data Collection
Process Method and Forms
Design Sample and Collect Data

Analyze and Interpret the Data

Prepare the Research Report

 Sources of a problem

 Experiences
 Problems in the Work Environment
 Classroom Discussions
 Technological and Scientific Advancement
 Offshoots of Other Researches
 Suggestions from Friends or Administrators
 Characteristics
of a problem
 Interest
 Practical values
 Novel or current
 Capability
 Time bound
 Moral values
 Factors influence the selection of a
problem
 Availability of data
 Time constraint
 Funds
 Capability of the researcher
 Attitudes and interest of the researcher
 Interest of the sponsor
 Importance of the issues involved
 Recency of such issues
 Cooperation of others
 Facilities and equipment
 Activity 2

A. Enumerate at least 3 possible problems you may encounter in the different

settings below:
 Personal life (family and social)
 School
 Community
 Workplace
 Government
 Relationships with significant others (classmates, friends, professors, etc…)
 Other areas of concern
 …activity 2

2. Based on the enumerated possible

problems, identify at least three
researchable problems and explain
why you have chosen them.
 The introduction

 CHAPTER I
 Background of the Study
 Theoretical Framework
 Conceptual Framework
 Statement of the Problem
 Hypothesis
 Significance of the Study
 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
 Definition of Terms
The introduction

 Rationalizing why there is a need to research on the problem

 Clarifying the important terminologies for the reader to easily
understand what the research is all about
 Establishing the degree of seriousness of the problem which
prompts the researcher to look for solutions
 WRITING AN INTRODUCTION

 The following questions will aid the researcher in formulating the

introduction:
 1. What is the rationale of the problem?
 2. What is the setting of the problem?
 3. What is the basic literature foundation of the study?
 4. How serious is the chosen research problem?
 5. What is the general objective of the problem?
 6. What is the overall purpose of the problem?
 Activity 3

 DIRECTIONS: To help you formulate the ‘INTRODUCTION’ of your study,

exhaustively answer the following:

 PROPOSED STUDY: ___________________

 1. What is the rationale of your chosen problem?

 2. describe the setting where your study is to be conducted.
 3. What are the terms or variables (concepts) that need to be defined, clarified,
or described to you and to your reader?
 Activity 3
 DIRECTIONS: To help you formulate the ‘INTRODUCTION’ of your
study, exhaustively answer the following:

 4. Look for related literature / studies that define the main

concepts of your research. (Collect at least three references per
concept). Write down the definitions.
 5. Determine how serious your chosen problem is. Show statistical
evidence of its gravity. Give the complete details of the references.
 6. What is the general objective or overall purpose of the study?
The statement of the problem

 After the researcher has clarified the rationale,

identified the degree of the seriousness of the
problem, the literature review, and the overall
objective, the formulation of the HEART of the
research – THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM of
the general and the specific problems – must be
done.
Types of research questions

1. Factor-isolating question (“What is this?”)

2. Factor-relating questions (“What is happening here?”)
3. Situation relating questions (“What will happen if …?”)
4. Situation-producing questions (“How can I make this happen?”)
Types of research questions

 Factor-isolating question
(“What is this?”)

Factor-naming questions –
they isolate, categorize,
describe, or name factors
and situations
The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of School
Managers: Basis for a Human Intervention Program
The overall purpose of this study is to assess the intrapersonal and
interpersonal competencies of school managers, and how they
contribute to school effectiveness in the Division of City Schools in
Balanga, Bataan for school year 2001-2002.
1. What is the profile of school managers in terms of:
 Age

 Management experience

2. What are the intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies of school

managers as described by themselves an by the teachers under them?
Types of research questions

 Factor-relating questions
(“What is happening here?”)

Their goal is to determine the

relationship among factors that have
been identified
 Factor-relating questions

 What are the factors affecting school effectiveness?

 What is the relationship of the level of performance of the college instructors
to the OJT performance of the students?
 What relationships and interrelationships are observed between and among
the following variables?
 Intrapersonal competency
 Interpersonal competency
 School effectiveness
 Types of research questions

 Situation relating questions

(“What will happen if …?”)

These questions usually yield hypotheses

testing or experimental study designs in
which the researcher manipulates the
variables to see what will happen.
 Situation relating questions

 What are the effects of the traditional methods of teaching to the level of
performance of tourism students?

 How do the management procedures applied by the head waiters affect the
level of customers satisfaction as experienced by selected regular clients of
Jollibee stores in Zamboanga City?

 What is the most effective fish food supplements to raise the productivity of
tilapia?
Types of research questions

 Situation-producing
questions
(“How can I make this happen?”)

These questions establish explicit

goals for actions, develop plan or
prescriptions to achieve goals,
and specify the conditions under
which goals will be accomplished.
Situation-producing questions

 Based on the findings, what human relation intervention

program can be adopted to enhance or improve school
effectiveness?
 What policy is to be formulated to manage the personnel in
government agencies effectively?
 What faculty development could be created based on the results
of the study?
MORE EXAMPLES
 ASSESSMENT TECNIQUES IN THE
BOARD EXAMINATION SUBJECTS IN
THE SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE

1. What assessment techniques are used

in the board examination subjects?
2. What are the extent of applying
Bloom’s taxonomy in the assessment
techniques in the board examination
subjects?
3. Is there a significant difference in the
extent of applying of applying
Bloom’s taxonomy in the assessment
techniques?
 JOB SATISFACTION AND
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF
SECONDARY TEACHERS

1. What is your overall level of job satisfaction of the teachers?

2. What is emotional intelligence of the teachers?
3. Is there a significant correlation between the level of job
satisfaction and the emotional intelligence of the teachers
 JOB SATISFACTION and job
performance OF THE
Zamboanga City POLICEMEN
1. What is the level of job satisfaction and job performance of the
respondents?
2. Is there a significant relationship between job performance and
satisfaction among respondents?
3. Is there a significant difference in the level of job satisfaction
and job performance of the respondents when profile is
considered?
 Criminal intent and educational aspiration of
disadvantaged school-age hawkers in Zamboanga
1. What is the level of thecity
criminal intent of school-age
street hawkers and non-hawkers?
2. What is the level of the educational aspiration of
school-age street hawkers and non-hawkers?
3. How do levels of the criminal intent and educational
aspiration of school-age hawkers and non-hawkers vary on the basis
of gender?
4. Is there significant difference in the criminal intent of
school-age hawkers and non-hawkers on the basis of gender?
5. Is there significant difference in the educational aspiration of
school-age hawkers and non-hawkers on the basis of gender?
 Activity 4

 DIRECTIONS: Formulate the “STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM” part of your research.

TITLE OF YOUR RESEARCH: ______________

GENERAL PROBLEM;
The investigator aims to _____________...

Specifically, the research seeks to answer the following questions:

1. _____________
2. ____________
3. ____________
 The Scope and
Delimitation and the Significance of
the Study
 The scope and delimitation

 The scope of the study is determined by the

major variables while the delimitation is
identified by the sub-variables and their
characteristics, and attributes or the
indicators.

 Itis also beneficial to mention the locale or

setting of the research and when the data will
be gathered.
 Kinds of variables

2. Variables used in an experiment

a. Independent variables – are the cause variables, the reasons of

changes in the dependent variables
b. Dependent variables – refer to those that are affected by the
cause variables
 Kinds of variables

3. Variables according to their nature

a. Concrete variables - are variables that can be perceived

through the senses (height, skin, color, taste)

b. Abstract variables – are variables of quality (knowledge

level, perception level, recovery rate)
 Kinds of variables

4. Variables according to the number being studied

a. Univariate study – one variable being studied

b. Bivariate study - two variables being studied
c. Polyvariate study – more than two variables are being studied
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 THE significance of the study must discuss

importance of the study to the society, the
country, the government, the community or the
institution, the agency concerned, the curriculum
planners and developers, and to other
researchers.
 Activity 5

DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What are the major variables, sub-variables, and
indicators of your study? List them under their
corresponding columns ((Make a table).
2. Where and when are data to be gathered?
3. Who are the beneficiaries of your study and what
benefits will they receive from the results of your study?
Cite at least three benefits for each beneficiary.
The theoretical framework

The building block of the

researcher’s study
 ELEMENTS of
the Theoretical Framework,
the Review Process,
and Relevant Theories
The theoretical framework

 A theory is a conceptual intervention that is used to describe,

explain, predict, or understand a certain phenomena

 A good theory expands vision and guides thinking, professional

practice, and research
The theoretical framework

A theory is an attempt to develop a

general explanation for a phenomena

 Itdefines non-observable constructs

that are inferred from observable facts
and events and thought to have an
effect on the phenomenon under study
The theoretical framework

Should clarify, delimit, describe,

and/or define the variables
being studied
 Activity 6
DIRECTIONS: Give at least three theories related to your proposed
study. Fill in the blanks with the necessary information.

Proposed Study: ________________________

1. Theory Title: ________________________

Theorist(s): _________________________
Theory Statement: ___________________
Theory Explanation: __________________
Relationship of the Theory to
the Present Study: _________________
http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/phuz

Password: resources
 The review of related literature

 Therelated literature is also called

conceptual literature.
 The review of related literature
 As the related literature and studies are gathered appropriately and
adequately, the different variables and sub-variables of the study
are clarified, and the delimitation of the study is determined

 The indicators per variable are likewise identified and objectively

established

 All indicators are clearly based on read articles from different

published materials
 Activity 7

 DIRECTION: Identify at least three Major variables in your research. Fill in the
blanks with the required information.

 TITLE OF THE RESEARCH: ________________

1. Major Variable: _______________________

Indicator(s): __________________________
Reference(s): _________________________
 Review of related studies

 Thisserves as the basis of the analysis

of results because it allows the
researcher to compare and contrast
his/her findings with those of past
studies

 The results of a study are verified by

similar findings or negated by different
findings of previous researchers.
 Review of related studies

 In writing a review of related study,

the following data must be
indicated:
1. The name of the author, and the date and
setting as in when and where the study was
conducted
2. The title
3. The salient findings (which are the most
important “ingredients” to conclude since the
discussion of the variables and their
relationship(s) will be based on them
 Activity 8

 DIRECTIONS: Gather at least three related studies and fill

in the blanks below with the required information.
 PROPOSED STUDY: ______________________
 1. Title of the Study: ____________________
Author(s): __________________________
Location: ___________ Year: __________
Relevant Findings: ___________________
Relationship to the Present Study: _____
The conceptual framework

 A framework is similar to a skeleton; it is a basic

structure or a frame of reference.
 It is designed to support or enclosed something
 As a skeleton gives shape, form, and strength to
the body so it can stand erect, so do different
concepts and theories
 They serve as building blocks to strongly clarify
the bases of the study
 The theoretical framework may be formulated from
an existing theory(ies) and serve as the foundation of
the study

 The conceptual framework is the researcher’s own

framework which guides him by making the direction
of the research clearer

 The result of the clearer understanding of the

theoretical or conceptual framework is a diagrammatic
presentation of the study called the paradigm.
Paradigm of the study

A pattern, model, or set of forms

which contains particular elements

 Itis a scientific imagination of the

researcher which is expressed visually
through drawings or sketches
IPO (input-process-output)model
This model is largely used when the
research studies attempt to isolate the factor or
major variable that causes the problem, subject,
or phenomenon under investigation
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

• Profile of • Analysis of • Improved Role

Entrepreneurs data through of
• Roles of the Entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurs questionnaire, • Higher Returns
• Specimen informal • Better Quality
Collection interviews Service
• Performance

Entrepreneurs’ Roles Toward Improved Work Performance

Iv-dv (independent variable-dependent
variable) model
This is used in experiment-based studies.
The questions raised are higher-order and maybe
factor-relating, situation-relating, or situation-
producing
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Teaching Methodology Level of Performance of
College Students

Computer-Assisted Instruction academic grades

Demonstration Method Practicum grades
Parent’s satisfaction

Effects of Computer-Aided Instruction and Demonstration Method to

the Level of Performance of College Students
 Cp (criterion-predictor) model
This is used when relating and assessing the
effects of two or more variables. Studies that
focus on relationships, associations, differences,
and effects will benefit from the model

Teaching Competence of Level of Performance

Clinical Instructors of Nursing Students

Knowledge level •Academic grades

Pedagogical skills •RLE performance
Classroom management skills •Patient’s satisfaction

Relationship of the Teaching Competence of Clinical Instructors to the

Level of Performance of Nursing Students
 Activity 9

DIRECTIONS: Sketch / show a diagram of the

conceptual framework of your study then
explain it.
THE HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

A hypothesis is a tentative prediction

about the relationship between two or
more variables in a population under
study

 Ittranslates a research question into a

prediction of expected outcomes
 Kinds of hypotheses

 Simple hypothesis
 Complex hypothesis
 Directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis
 Null hypothesis
 Research hypothesis
 Activity 10

 DIRECTIONS: Provide the necessary information

for each item below.

 PROPOSED STUDY: ________________

 Write the statement of the problem: __________

 Formulateyour hypotheses based on the
statement of the problem: ______________
 Definition of terms

 Conceptual definition – when a term is defined

using books and dictionaries…
 Operational definition – when a term is defined
according to how it is used in the study.
 A combination of the two methods is often very
helpful…
 Terms must be defined alphabetically…
 Activity 11

 DIRECTIONS: Provide the necessary

information for each item below.

1. State the title of your proposed study.

2. State the problems of your study.
3. Draw the paradigm of your study.
4. Define (either conceptual or operational) all the important variables
you used in numbers 1-3.
Skills needed to design and conduct
research

 Solving Puzzles
 Lengthening your Attention Span
 Learning to Use Library Resources
 Writing, Editing, and more Writing
 Research methodology

 Howdoes the researcher

answer the questions in
Chapter I?
 Essential elements of research
methodology

 Research design
 Research locale
 Participants / respondents of the study
 Instrument in the study
 Validation of and establishing reliability
 Ethical Consideration
 Data Gathering Procedure
 Statistical treatment
RESEARCH DESIGN

116
 RESEARCH DESIGN

 RESEARCH DESIGN refers to the plan,

structure, and strategy of research--
the blueprint that will guide the
research process.

117
Classifying Research

 Two helpful ways to view research

 Purpose
 The degree of direct applicability of
research to educational practices and
settings
 Method
 The overall strategies followed to collect

and analyze data

Obj. 3.1, 3.2 & 3.5
 Quantitative Research: Collection of numerical data for
the purpose of
 Explaining
 Predicting and/or
 Controlling a phenomenon of interest

 QualitativeResearch: Collection, analysis of non-

numerical data for the purpose of gaining insights into a
particular phenomenon of interest
There are many methods of
conducting research.
Case Study Correlational

Survey Descriptive

Narrative Mixed Causal-Comparative

Grounded Theory
Experimental
Ethnographic
Single Subject

Qualitative Quantitative

Educational Research 120

 Nieswiadomy (2004)

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Aims to characterize trends and Involves processes, feelings,
patterns
Usually starts with neither a
theory nor hypothesis about the
relationship between two or
more variables
Uses structured research
instruments like questionnaires
or schedules
motives; the why’s and the
how’s (data are in depth and
holistic)
Usually concerned with
generating a hypothesis from
data rather than testing a
hypothesis
Uses either unstructured or
semi-structured instruments
 Nieswiadomy (2004)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Uses large sample sizes that are Uses small sample sizes chosen
representative of the purposely
population
Research of this kind can be Validity should be high
replicated
Uses greater understanding of Uses to gain a greater
group similarities understanding of individual
differences in terms of feelings,
motives, and experiences
Uses structured processes Uses more flexible processes
Methods include census, survey, Methods include field research,
experiments, and secondary case study, secondary analysis
analysis
 Quantitative research

 Quantitative research – is the

traditional, positivist scientific method
which refers to a general set of
orderly, disciplined procedures to
acquire information.

 Itutilizes deductive reasoning to

generate predictions that are tested in
the real world
When Should I Use A Quantitative
Research Method?
 When the research problem is a description
of trends or an explanation of the
relationship among variables.
Quantitative Methods

 Correlational: Collection of data to determine, if and to what extent

a relationship exists between two or more quantitative variables
 Ex. To what degree does parental involvement in school relate to increased
student achievement.
 Descriptive: Determines and reports on the way things are. Collects
data to test hypotheses or answer questions about the current status of
the subject study.
 Ex. Pre-election political poll or survey about public perceptions of their
schools
 Causal/Comparative: Attempt to determine the cause or reason for
existing differences in the behavior or status of groups of individuals.
 Ex. The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of first
grade.
 Independent variable (cause) students attending preschool and not attending
 Dependent variable (effect) difference in social maturity between the groups
Educational Research 125
Quantitative Methods, cont.

 Experimental: At least one independent variable is manipulated,

other relevant variables are controlled (impact reduced) and the
effect on one or more dependent variables is observed.
 Ex. The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude towards school.
 Independent variable: type of reinforcement (positive, negative, no
reinforcement)
 Dependent variable: attitude towards school

 Single-Subject: A design used to study the behavior change that

an individual or group experiences as a result of an intervention.
 Ex. The effects of weekly teacher and parent communication on the
completion of homework of eighth-grade at-risk students.
 Quantitative research designs
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
True experimental design
Pretest-posttest control design
Posttest only group
Solomon four-group
Quasi-experimental designs
Non-equivalent
Time series
Pre-experimental designs
One-shot case study
One group pretest
Posttest
NON-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
Action Studies
Comparative studies
Correlational studies
Developmental studies
Evaluation Studies
Meta-analysis studies
Methodological studies
Needs assessment studies
Secondary analysis studies
Survey studies
When Should I Use A Qualitative research
Method?

 When the research problem is an

exploration and understanding of a
central phenomenon.

128
 Qualitative research

 Qualitative research or the naturalistic

method of inquiry of research, deals
with the issue of human complexity by
exploring it directly
 Naturalisticinvestigations place heavy
emphasis on understanding human
experience as it is lived.
 Qualitative research

 Qualitative research focuses on gaining

insights on and an understanding of an
individual’s perception of events.
 It is concerned with in-depth
description of people or events and
their interpretation of circumstances.
 Data are collected through such
methods as unstructured interviews and
participant observation.
Qualitative methods...

 historical research  grounded theory

 ethnography  phenomenology
 case study  symbolic interaction
 ethology  action research
 ethnomethodology
 Activity 12
research design
 DIRECTIONS: Supply the following with the necessary information
based on the knowledge gained from the discussion.
1. Compose the introductory paragraph of your research
methodology.
2. Describe the general methodology that will utilize in your
proposed study. Cite your references.
3. Why did you choose this general methodology?
4. What specific methodology will you utilize in your proposed
study? Cite your references.
5. Why did you choose this specific methodology?
 Participants of the study

 The population is a complete set of persons or objects

that possess some common characteristics that are of
interest to the researcher.
 A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a population
 A sample is subset of the entire population or a group of
individuals that represents the population and serves as
respondents of the study.
 A statistic is a numeric characteristic of a sample.
 Sample size

FACTORS to Consider in Determining Sample Size

 Homogeneity of the population
 the higher the degree of homogeneity of the population, the smaller is the
sample size that can be utilized.
 Degree of precision desired by the researcher
 The larger the sample size, the higher is the precision or accuracy of results.
 Types of sampling procedure.
 Probability sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes than non-probability
sampling.
 Sample size

 Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally

adequate to ensure that the sampling
distribution of the mean will approximate
the normal curve (Shott, 1990)

 When the total population is equal to or

less than 100, this same number may
serve as the sample size. This is called
universal sampling.
 Sample size

 Slovin’s Formula
 According to Gay (1976), the following are the acceptable sizes for different
types of research:

 Descriptive research – 10%-20% may be required

 Correlational research – 30 subjects or respondents
 Comparative research – 15 subjects/group
 Experimental research – 15 – 30 subjects per group
 Kinds of sampling

 Probability sampling
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Non-probability sampling
 Convenience sampling
 Quota sampling
 Purposive sampling
 Activity 13
participants of the study

 DIRECTIONS: Answer the following

questions thoroughly. The used of
additional references is encouraged.
1. How would you describe the population and the parameter of your
study?
2. What is the size of your sample? How did you arrive at this sample size?
3. What sampling method will you use? Why do you prefer this method?
4. How will you do the sampling? List down the steps.
5. What are the qualifying criteria for the selection of the sample?
 Instrument of the study

 Most frequently used data collection techniques

 Documentary analysis
 Interview
 Unstructured
 Structured
 Semi-structured
 Observation
 Structured
 unstructured
 Physiologicalmeasures
 Psychological tests
 Questionnaire
 Types of questions

 Yes or No type
 Recognition Type
 Completion Type
 Coding Type
 Subjective Type
 Combination Type
 Wording of questions

 State questions in an affirmative rather than in a negative manner.

 Avoid ambiguous questions, e.g., those which contain words like
many, always, usually, few, etc.
 Avoid double negative questions, e.g., Don’t you disagree with
the idea that…?
 Do you
Avoid double-barreled question, i.e., two questions in one.
want to pursue a doctorate degree in education and
seek an administrative position after graduation?
Scales commonly used in an instrument

 Likert Scale. It is a common scaling technique

which consists of several declarative statements
that expresses a viewpoint.

 Semantic differential scale. The respondents

are asked to rate concepts on a series of bipolar
adjectives.
 Activity 14
instrument of the study
 DIRECTIONS: Answer the following
questions thoroughly. The used of
additional references is encouraged.
1. What instrument(s) will you use to gather data to answer your
questions? Describe the instrument(s). Cite your reference.
2. Why did you choose this/these instrument(s)?
3. What will be the parts of your instrument? Include the major variables
and sub-variables.
4. What rating scale will you use? Discuss in detail.
5. Formulate a question that centers on one of your study variables/sub-
variables. Cite at least five indicators of your chosen variable/sub-
variable.
 Validity and reliability

 Validity
is the ability of an instrument
to measure what it purports to
measure.

 When a study investigates the common

causes of absences, the content of the
instrument must focus on these
variables and indicators.
 Reliabilityrefers to the
consistency of results. A reliable
instrument yields the same rank
for individuals who take the test
more than once.
 Methods in establishing reliability

 Test-retest or stability
 The same test is given to a group of respondents twice. The scores in the first test are
correlated with scores in the second test.

 Internal consistency
 If the test in question is designed to measure a single basic concept, it is reasonable to
assume that a respondent who gets the item right is likely to get right in another item
that is similar.

 Split-half
 Kuder-Richardson
 Split-half

 Kuder-Richardson
 Activity 15
establishing validity & reliability of
the instrument

DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions thoroughly. The use of

additional references is encouraged.

1. How will you establish the validity of your instrument? Discuss the
process step by step.
2. What kind of validity will you use? Justify your answer.
3. How will you determine the reliability of your instrument? Describe the
process step by step.
4. Do you think your instrument is valid and reliable? Justify your answer.
Role of Statistics in research
 Validity
Will this study help answer the research
question?
 Analysis
What analysis, & how should this be
interpreted and reported?
 Efficiency
Is the experiment the correct size,
making best use of resources?
 Statistical treatment

 Statistical treatment is the culmination of the long

process of formulating a hypothesis, constructing the
instrument, as well as collecting data.
 It is a requisite in any research that the researcher has a
full knowledge of statistics.
 Statistics is the body of logic and techniques useful for
collection, organization, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data.
 Branches of statistics

 Descriptive statistics
 It involves tabulating, depicting, and describing a collection of data.
 The data are summarized to reveal overall patterns and to make easily
manageable.

 Inferential statistics
 It involves making generalizations about the population through a sample drawn
from it.
 It involves hypothesis testing and sampling.
 It is concerned with higher degree of critical judgment and advanced mathematical
modes such as using parametric and non-parametric statistical tools.
 Common statistical tools
 Descriptive Statistics
 Frequency distribution
 Proportion
 Percentage
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Variability or Dispersion
 Inferential Statistics
 Parametric Tests
 T-test Pearson-Product Moment Correlation
 Z-test Simple Linear Regression
 ANOVA Multiple Regression Analysis

 Non-parametric Test
 Chi-square test
 Activity 16
statistical treatment
 DIRECTIONS: Fill in the necessary information based on the
knowledge gained from the discussions in this chapter.

STATEMENT OF THE STATISTICAL

PROBLEM TOOL
1. _____________________ 1. __________
2. _____________________ 2. __________
3. _____________________ 3. __________
4. _____________________ 4. __________
5. _____________________ 5. __________
Questions or Comments

157