CHAPTER 7

The Biology of Sex

and Gender
Sex as a Form of Motivation
 Sex as a Form
of Motivation
• Sex = motivated behavior
– Similar to hunger, thirst, aggression
– Includes maternal/parenting behaviors as well as mating
– Unusual in that doesn’t fit homeostatic model of other “motivated”
behaviors, but actually IS

• Has similar characteristics with other motivated behavior

– Arousal
– Satiation
– Involves hormones
– Controlled by specific brain areas
 Sex as a Form
of Motivation
• William Masters and Virginia Johnson
• 1960’s body of work
• Groundbreaking research on human sexual response.

• Identified four phases of sexual response:

– The excitement phase is a period of arousal and preparation for
intercourse.
– During the plateau phase, the increase in sexual arousal levels off.
– During orgasm, rhythmic contractions occur in the vagina and
those in the penis are accompanied by ejaculation.
– Resolution follows as arousal decreases and the body returns to its
previous state.
 Excitement phase

• Period of arousal and preparation for intercourse

• Autonomic arousal
• Increased heart rate
• Increased respiration rate
• Increased blood pressure
• Increased muscle tension

• Females (human)
• Clitoris becomes erect
• Vaginal lips swell; vagina lubricates
• Breasts enlarge; nipples erect
 Excitement phase

• Period of arousal and preparation for intercourse

• Men
• Penis engorged, erect
• Nipples erect

• Animals: lordosis
• Rearing and presenting
• Elevated rump
• Move tail to side
 Excitement phase
• Influenced by opportunity and sexual stimuli rather
than time:
• Coolidge Effect: males show continuously high sexual performance given the
introduction of new receptive partners

• The term comes from an old joke:

– U.S. President Calvin Coolidge and his wife allegedly visited a poultry farm.
During the tour, Mrs. Coolidge inquired of the farmer how his farm managed
to produce so many fertile eggs with such a small number of roosters. The
farmer proudly explained that his roosters performed their duty dozens of times
each day. "Perhaps you could point that out to Mr. Coolidge," pointedly replied
the First Lady. The President, overhearing the remark, asked the farmer, "Does
each rooster service the same hen each time?“ "No," replied the farmer, "there
are many hens for each rooster.“ "Perhaps you could point that out to Mrs.
Coolidge," replied the President.
 Excitement phase
• What is arousing is both innate and learned.
• Arousal cues may be innate or learned
• Some arousal cues may become “fetishes”
• Usually classically conditioned: CS-US pairings

• Some animals: sexual arousal is regulated event triggered by

season, hormones, or time
• Strong estrous cycle
• Said to be in estrous or “heat”
• Many rodents are reflexive ovulators: Respond to presence of male
hormones
• In humans: reflexive sexual responses to environmental cues
• Not ovulation
• But cues elicit variety of sexual responses
• Thankfully, human arousal is not directly tied to ovulation
 plateau phase
• During plateau phase increase in sexual arousal
levels off: Arousal maintained at high level for minutes (or
seconds)

• Physiological changes:
• Testes rise in scrotum in preparation for ejaculation
• Vaginal lubrication increases, vaginal entrance tightens
• Preparation for orgasm
 Orgasm
• At orgasm: Sudden discharge of accumulated sexual
tension
– Rhythmic contractions to penis; ejaculation
– Vaginal contractions as well: Help push sperm up vaginal canal
– May be accompanied by an intense sensation of pleasure
– Release of oxytocin and endorphins

• Orgasm is important for increasing rate of fertilization

• Orgasms are controlled by the autonomic N.S. and the limbic

system.

• Human (male and female) brain wave patterns show distinct changes
– Limbic system activity increases during orgasmic response.
– Temporary decrease in the metabolic activity of large parts of the
cerebral cortex
 Resolution phase
• Arousal decreases and body returns to pre-arousal
state
• Males have a refractory phase,
• Unable to become aroused or have another orgasm for
minutes, hours, or even days,
• Highly dependent on the individual and circumstances
• Release of oxytocin and prolactin into bloodstream

• Duration of resolution phase highly variable,

influenced by environmental cues
– Again the Coolidge effect: quicker return to sexual arousal when a new
partner is introduced.
 Role of Testosterone

• Testosterone is the major sex hormone in males.

– Also necessary for women
– Ratio of estrogen/testosterone is critical

• Castration
– Removal of the gonads (testes or ovaries)
– (often used to study hormonal effects)
– Removes the major source of sex hormones.
– Castration results in a loss of sexual motivation in nonhuman
mammals of both sexes.

• Androgens: Class of hormones responsible for a number

of male characteristics and functions.
 Role of Testosterone
• Hormones become less important in human behavior
– Still are necessary
– But of equal importance to experience and stimuli factors

• In humans: castration = loss of sexual behavior if occurs prior to

puberty

• Sexually experienced men may experience changes in sexual

behavior with castration, but not LOSE sexual behavior
– Testosterone levels high in men at END of intercourse not before
– Anticipation of sexual activity may increase testosterone
– Many of sexual behaviors learned rather than innate for humans

• Thus: effect of depo-provera for sexual offenders not necessarily

effective
 Role of estrogen
• In most species, females only engage in sexual behavior during
estrus, or heat

• Humans and many primates are sexually active throughout

cycle

• Estrus:
– Period when the female is ovulating
– Sex hormone levels are high
– In animals: said to be in “heat”.
– Humans do not have clear “estrus”
• Obviously, women ovulate, but no clear “heat”
– Data DO suggest that women more likely to initiate sex when
ovulating
 Role of estrogen

• Estrogen : Class of hormones responsible for a number of

female characteristics and functions
– Critical for regulation of menstrual cycle and ovulation
– Of equal importance: Progesterone \
– Need the correct and changing ratio of estrogen/progesterone for
normal menstrual cycle.

• Testosterone also peaks with estrogen during ovulation/mid

cycle
– Older women have lower levels of testosterone, estrogen
– Testosterone increases in women with increase in sexual activity
– May be testosterone which produces increase in sexual behavior during
ovulation
 Sex and the brain

• Medial Preoptic Area(MPOA) of the hypothalamus

– Modulates both male and female sexual behavior.
– Stimulation of the MPOA increases copulation in rats of
both sexes.
– The MPOA is active when rats copulate spontaneously.

• The MPOA is responsible for performance rather than

sexual motivation: The action and not the desire!

• Lesions effects: Alters copulation behavior

– Male monkeys no longer tried to copulate,
– Instead would masturbate in the presence of a female.
 Sex and the brain
• Medial amygdala
– Located near lateral ventricle in temporal lobe
– Stimulation here releases DA signals to MPOA
– Contributes to sexual behavior in male and female rats
– Role = respond to sexually exciting stimuli

• Appear to be some “innate” stimuli

– Probably lordosis
 Sex and the brain

• What “motivates” sexual behavior?

– Obviously, need right level of hormones
– Also need environmental cues

• In lower primates: strong response to certain visual stimuli:

• Swelling of female’s genitals
• Color change in genitals when in estrous- their “sex skin”

• In humans: Much more complicated

– Traditional physical cues: breasts, buttocks, learned stimuli
– But also “fitness cues: intelligence, wealth, etc.
 Gender differences
• Sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN)
– Nucleus located in the MPOA.
– More significant for males than females

• Why name? The SDN is five times larger in male rats

than in females.
– Is related to sexual behavior of males
– Destruction of SDN reduces sexual activity
– Not true for females: lesioning has no effect on sexual
behavior but does alter parenting behavior
 Sex and the brain
• SDN connects to other brain areas:
– Integrates sensory and hormone information
– Coordinates behavioral and physiological responses to sexual cues

• The level of sexual activity in males appears to be

strongly correlated to SDN size:
– SDN size depends on prenatal (before birth) exposure to
testosterone
– High sexual activity may increase size of SDN.
– Suggests in-utero environment may be critical factor in
sexual behavior
– Suggestion that may be differences in heterosexual vs.
homosexual men, but data are VERY tenuous
 a. Adult male b. Adult female

(a) The SDN is

larger in the
male than (b)
SDN-POA the SDN in
the female
(b).
c. Adult female exposed
to testosterone diethystilbesterol (c) The effects
of two
masculinizing
hormones on
the female
SDN.

SDN-POA
 Sex and the brain

• Ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus :VMH

– important for sexual behavior in female rats.
– Activity increases there during copulation
– destruction reduces the female’s responsiveness to a male’s
advances.

• Also important for maternal/parental behaviors

• Nursing
• Caretaking

• Less is known about female sexual response……

 Sex neurotransmitters

• Dopamine (DA)
– Injection and microdialysis studies show DA importance
– DA activity in MPOA involved in sexual motivation for both males and
females
– Critical for sexual performance in males.

• Small amounts of DA stimulate D1 receptors

– This activates parasympathetic NS
– Increases motivation, erection, delays ejaculation

• As DA increases- stimulates D2 receptors

– Shifts autonomic balance to sympathetic NS
– Inhibits erection
– Elicits sexual refractory period
 Sex neurotransmitters

• DA changes parallel changes in sexual behavior/motivation

• E.G, during Coolidge effect

– Increased DA in male rat’s nucleus accumbens in presence of female
– Drops to baseline as interest wanes
– Increases with new female
– Remember role of DA as a signal for reward- this fits the pattern

• Suggests that DA reflects male’s interest level, rather than

level of sexual activity
– Again, DA is a motivating hormone
– DA activates the behavior, is not the result
 Sex neurotransmitters

• Serotonin: 5ht
– Ejaculation elicits serotonin increases in lateral
hypothalamus (LH)
– Remember: LH important for stopping motivated behavior
– Increases in Serotonin
• Increase time to sexual arousal
• Contributes to the refractory period.

• If inject 5HT reuptake blocker (agonist) into LH:

– Longer time until male rat attempts copulation
– Inhibits ability to ejaculate when do copulate
 Sex neurotransmitters

• Understanding role of DA and Serotonin important for human

sexual behavior:

• DA increases: May explain hypersexuality during manic phases

in bipolar disorder and during stimulant abuse

• Understanding role of 5HT: explains sexual side effects of

SSRIs
– Remember drugs are 5HT reuptake blockers
– This helps with remediating depression
– BUT: may prolong the refractory period,
– Make it more difficult to become aroused
– Is both a negative and a positive
 Sex neurotransmitters

• Oxytocin: released as neurotransmitter from hypothalamus

– Produces smooth muscle contractions
– Involved in vaginal contractions, ejaculatory mechanisms
– Critical for lactating (breast feeding) females.
– Also important for childbirth- starts labor

• In non-human animals:
– Contributes to male sexual behavior
– Contributes to female receptivity
– Appears to account for monogamous pair bonding in prairie voles.

• In humans:
– Increases dramatically during masturbation
– Involved in subjective arousal, feelings of pleasure during orgasm
Importance of pheramones
• Pheramones
– Airborn hormone
– Appears important for sexual attraction
– Also important for regulation of hormonal cycles

• Preti, et al., 1998: Study on pheromon effects in humans

– Synchrony of women’s menstrual cycles: Most likely due to pheromones
– women exposed to each other’s pheromones: = synchronized menstrual
cycle
– Menstrual cycles = more regular when exposed to MALE pheramones
– Pheramones alter release of lutenizing hormone (LH): Critical hormone
for regulating menstrual cycle

• Why? Increases likelihood of fertilization

– For a “troop” of primates, more easily impregnated if all ovulate at same
time.
Importance of pheramones
• What about those pheramone based
perfumes?
– Might work somewhat
– Similar item for farms: Boar’s mate or bull’s
mate (comes in a spray can!)

• May enhance sexual attractiveness in

humans
– Individuals who use perfume/aftershave with
pheramones judged to be more attractive
– Not particularly strong effect: Human
vomeronasal system is very small
– Tend to use other learned signals more