TCE 3103

MINERALS ENGINEERING 1A

1
INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL PROCESSING

• “NO SUBSTANCE HAS BEEN AS IMPORTANT AS METAL IN THE

STORY OF MAN'S CONTROL OF HIS ENVIRONMENT.
ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURE, WARFARE, TRANSPORT, EVEN
COOKERY ARE IMPOSSIBLE WITHOUT METAL. SO IS THE
ENTIRE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, FROM STEAM TO
ELECTRICITY.”
SOURCE:
HTTP://WWW.HISTORYWORLD.NET/WRLDHIS/PLAINTEXTHISTORIES.ASP?HISTORYID=A
B16#IXZZ13XSEYVNZ

2
AGRICULTURE

3
TRANSPORT

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GOALS AND BASICS OF MINERAL PROCESSING
• MINERAL PROCESSING INVOLVES THE PROCESSING OF ORES OR OTHER
MATERIALS TO YIELD CONCENTRATED PRODUCTS.

• MOST OF THE PROCESSES INVOLVE PHYSICAL CONCENTRATION PROCEDURES

DURING WHICH THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE MINERAL DOES NOT CHANGE.

• THE ULTIMATE GOAL IN THE FIELD OF MINERALS ENGINEERING / EXTRACTIVE

METALLURGY IS THE PRODUCTION OF METALS IN A FORM WHICH IS SUITABLE
FOR THEIR END USE.

• FIG. 1 BELOW SHOWS THE GENERALISED FLOW DIAGRAM FOR METALS

5
EXTRACTION.
6
• THE FIGURE ABOVE SHOWS THE GENERAL PROCESSING ROUTE FROM THE ORE
TO METAL, HOWEVER THE SPECIFIC UNIT OPERATIONS APPLIED DIFFER FROM
METAL TO METAL.

7
 MINERALS IN ZIMBABWE (MINISTRY OF MINES
AND MINING DEVELOPMENT, 2012 AND 2016)

• ZIMBABWE HAS A HUGE AND HIGHLY DIVERSIFIED MINERAL

RESOURCE BASE DOMINATED BY TWO PROMINENT GEOLOGICAL
FEATURES I.E. THE GREAT DYKE AND THE ANCIENT GREENSTONE
BELTS ALSO KNOWN AS THE GOLD BELTS.
• THE GREAT DYKE IS A LAYERED IGNEOUS COMPLEX EXTENDING
NORTH-SOUTH FOR ABOUT 550KM. THE GREAT DYKE PLAYS HOST
TO THE LARGEST HIGH GRADE CHROMITE RESOURCE BASE,
ZIMBABWE HAS THE WORLD’S SECOND LARGEST RESOURCE OF
PLATINUM GROUP METALS AS WELL AS SIGNIFICANT RESERVES OF
8

COPPER AND NICKEL.

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• WITH ROCK AGES SPANNING A PERIOD OF MORE THAN 300
MILLION YEARS, ZIMBABWE’S HETEROGENEOUS ENVIRONMENT IS
FAVOURABLE TO OCCURRENCES OF A VARIETY OF MINERALS AND
ORE BODIES. SOME OF THE MAJOR MINERALS INCLUDE:

10
GOLD
• THERE ARE OVER 4 000 RECORDED GOLD DEPOSITS, NEARLY ALL OF
THEM LOCATED ON ANCIENT WORKINGS. CURRENTLY ABOUT 40% ARE
BEING COMMERCIALLY EXPLOITED. MORE THAN 90% OF GOLD DEPOSITS
IN ZIMBABWE ARE ASSOCIATED WITH GREENSTONE BELTS.

DIAMONDS
• DIAMOND IS A GEMSTONE OF ENORMOUS POTENTIAL IN ZIMBABWE. IF
THE DEPOSITS AT CHIADZWA ARE MINED EXTENSIVELY, IT IS ESTIMATED
THAT ZIMBABWE HAS THE POTENTIAL OF PRODUCING APPROXIMATELY
25% OF THE WORLD’S DIAMONDS.

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COAL
• ZIMBABWE HOSTS LARGE RESERVES OF COAL IN THE LOWER
KAROO ROCKS OF THE MID ZAMBEZI BASIN AND THE SAVE-
LIMPOPO BASIN. OVER 20 COAL LOCALITIES ARE KNOWN WITH
ESTIMATED RESOURCES OF >12 BILLION TONNES.

PLATINUM GROUP METALS

• ZIMBABWE HOSTS THE SECOND LARGEST PLATINUM GROUP
METALS RESOURCE IN THE WORLD ON THE GREAT DYKE. AN
ESTIMATE 2.8 BILLION TONNES PGM ORE AT 4G/T ARE ESTIMATED
TO BE IN THE DYKE.

12
CHROME
• CHROME OCCURS IN THE GREAT DYKE AND THE GREENSTONE BELTS.
CHROMITE RESERVES ON THE GREAT DYKE APPROXIMATE 10 BILLION
TONNES. ZIMBABWE IS ESTIMATED TO HOST OVER 80% OF THE
WORLD’S RESOURCES OF METALLURGICAL QUALITY CHROMITE.

NICKEL
• THE GEOLOGY OF ZIMBABWE IS HIGHLY FAVOURABLE FOR NICKEL
OCCURRENCES. THE COUNTRY’S NICKEL SULPHIDE ENDOWMENT
INCLUDES A VARIETY OF KOMATIITE AND MAFIC INTRUSION-HOSTED
DEPOSITS.

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COPPER
• THERE ARE OVER 70 KNOWN DEPOSITS IN ZIMBABWE THAT HAVE
PRODUCED COPPER EITHER AS THE PRIMARY OR SECONDARY
PRODUCT.

IRON ORE
• ZIMBABWE HAS HUGE IRON ORE DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH
BANDED IRONSTONE FORMATIONS IN GREENSTONE BELTS. MAJOR
DEPOSITS ARE ESTIMATED TO HOST OVER 30 BILLION TONNES OF
RESERVES. THE MOST IMPORTANT DEPOSITS WITH HIGH-GRADE
ORE ARE THE BUCHWA AND RIPPLE CREEK.
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URANIUM
• URANIUM EXPLORATION IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY IN THE EARLY 1980S
RESULTED IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF SEVERAL ANOMALIES INCLUDING
THE KANYEMBA DEPOSIT. HIGHEST GRADE AT KANYEMBA IS 7.4% U3O8.

PEGMATITE MINERALS
• THESE ARE A SOURCE OF A VARIETY OF MINERALS INCLUDING TANTALITE,
TIN, WOLFRAMITE E.T.C AND GEMSTONES.

DIMENSION STONES
• THESE INCLUDE GRANITE, GNEISSES, DOLERITE, MARBLES AND
QUARTZITES.

15
 INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY

VIDEO
• A PERFECT PLANET...THE FORMATION OF THE EARTH
• HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=_MCC8KFACRK

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FORMATION AND COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH

THE ACCRETION THEORY

• CURRENT MODELS SUGGEST THAT OUR SOLAR SYSTEM FORMED FROM
THE GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE OF A ROTATING INTERSTELLAR CLOUD,
WHICH MAY HAVE BEEN TRIGGERED BY A NEARBY SUPERNOVA
(CAMERON, 1988; WETHERILL, 1990).
• THE EVOLUTION FROM A ROTATING CLOUD OF GAS AND DUST TO A
HIGHLY STRUCTURED SOLAR SYSTEM IS MODELLED AS A SERIES OF
COLLISIONAL PROCESSES HAVING SOME DEGREE OF HIERARCHICAL
EVOLUTION.
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• DUST GRAINS ACCRETE TO FORM SMALL PARTICLES AND THESE COMBINE
TO FORM PLANETESIMALS AND PROTOPLANETS (ASTEROID LIKE BODIES).
(ACCRETION IS THE GRADUAL INCREASE IN THE SIZE OF AN OBJECT BY
THE BUILD-UP OF MATTER DUE TO GRAVITY).

• FOLLOWING THIS, AND PERHAPS AT A SLOWER ACCRETION RATE (DUE

TO DECREASED PROBABILITIES OF COLLISIONS FOR THEY ARE FEWER IN
NUMBER), THE PROTOPLANETS COALESCE TO FORM LARGER BODIES.

• SUCH LARGE COLLISIONS MAY EXPLAIN THE ORIGIN OF OUR MOON,

THE HIGH FE/SILICATE RATIO OF MERCURY, AND THE RETROGRADE ORBIT
OF VENUS, AMONG OTHER THINGS.
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• MATERIAL THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THE GROWING EARTH CAME FROM
THE SAME INTERSTELLAR CLOUD THAT GAVE RISE TO THE OTHER PLANETS
AND THE SUN, THE LATTER OF WHICH CONTAINS >99% OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM’S MASS.

• IN ITS INITIAL STATE, THE INTERSTELLAR CLOUD WAS LIKELY TO HAVE BEEN
COMPOSITIONALLY HOMOGENEOUS TO A FIRST ORDER, BUT BECAME
CHEMICALLY HETEROGENEOUS DURING THE FORMATION AND
EVOLUTION OF THE PLANETS (CAMERON, 1988).

• THE SUN AND THE OUTER PLANETS HAVE A SUBSTANTIALLY GREATER

COMPLEMENT OF GASES AND OTHER VOLATILES THAN THE INNER,
ROCKY PLANETS.
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STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• THE EARTH IS MADE UP OF 3 MAJOR AND DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT UNITS:

THE CORE, THE MANTLE-CRUST SYSTEM AND THE ATMOSPHERE-
HYDROSPHERE SYSTEM. THESE UNITS ARE THE PRODUCTS OF PLANETARY
DIFFERENTIATION AND ARE DISTINCTIVE IN COMPOSITION.
• THE MASS OF THE CORE IS ABOUT 1/3 OF THE EARTH’S MASS, ITS
VOLUME IS ABOUT 1/8 OF THE EARTH’S AND IT RADIUS IS ABOUT 1/2 OF
THE EARTH’S. THE SILICATE PART OF THE EARTH (CRUST AND MANTLE)
MAKES UP THE REMAINING 2/3 OF ITS MASS, AND THE REST OF VOLUME,
ASIDE FROM THAT OF THE ATMOSPHERE/HYDROSPHERE.

20
• THE EARTH, THUS, HAS 2 DISTINCT BOUNDARY LAYERS, THE CORE-MANTLE
BOUNDARY AND THE EARTH’S SURFACE, WITH GROSSLY CONTRASTING
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ABOVE AND BELOW THESE REGIONS.
• THE CORE IS AN FE-NI ALLOY, WITH LESSER AMOUNT OF OTHER
SIDEROPHILE (IRON-LOVING) ELEMENTS AND ~10% BY MASS OF A LIGHT
ELEMENT.
• THE CRUST-MANTLE SYSTEM IS A MIXTURE OF SILICATES CONTAINING
PRIMARILY MAGNESIUM, IRON, ALUMINIUM AND CALCIUM.
• THE ATMOSPHERE-HYDROSPHERE SYSTEM IS DOMINATED BY THE MASS
OF THE OCEANS, BUT THE ATMOSPHERE IS UNIQUE WITHIN THE SOLAR
SYSTEM IN THAT IT IS AN 80/20 MIXTURE OF N2 AND O2.

21
FORMATION OF ROCKS AND ORES

22
IGNEOUS ROCKS

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• FORMED BY THE SOLIDIFICATION OF MAGMA (I.E. MOLTEN ROCK
MATERIAL AND DISSOLVED GASES)

• IF SOLIDIFICATION TAKES PLACE COMPLETELY DEEP WITHIN THE

EARTH’S CRUST, WITHOUT REACHING THE SURFACE THE ROCKS ARE
CALLED INTRUSIVE ROCKS.

• IF SOLIDIFICATION TAKES PLACE ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE THESE

ROCKS ARE CALLED EXTRUSIVE/VOLCANIC ROCKS.
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• MINERAL DEPOSITS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH BOTH TYPES OF
IGNEOUS ROCKS.
• THE SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS IS VERY COMPLEX AND DEPENDING
ON THE CONDITIONS OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE, RATE OF
COOLING AND PRESENCE OF DISSOLVED GASES A LARGE NUMBER
OF ROCK TYPES ARE FORMED WITH ENTIRELY DIFFERENT CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION.
• IF THE ROCK IS FORMED BY VOLCANIC ACTION IT COOLS QUICKLY
AND FINE GRAINS ARE OBTAINED.
• IF THE ROCK ID FORMED IN A MAGMA CHAMBER (I.E. BENEATH THE
EARTH’S SURFACE) IT COOLS SLOWLY AND COURSE GRAINED
CRYSTALS ARE FORMED.
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CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

• THE CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS IN ITS SIMPLEST FORM IS

MAINLY A REFLECTION OF THE SILICA CONTENT.

THE DIFFERENT CLASSES ARE:

(1) GRANITIC (ACIDIC) SIO2 > 66% LIGHT
COLOURED
(2) ANDESITIC (INTERMEDIATE) SIO2 52-66%
(3) BASALTIC (BASIC) SIO2 45-52%
(4) ULTRA-BASIC SIO2 <45%
DARK COLOURED

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27
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

28
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• FORMED FROM SEDIMENTS DEPOSITED (USUALLY) BY A FLUID MEDIUM AT

SURFACE TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES.

• NORMALLY DERIVED FROM PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING OR EROSION OF

OTHER ROCKS, THEY ALSO INCLUDE DERIVED PARTICLES.

• MOST SURFACE ROCKS ARE SEDIMENTARY AND MANY ECONOMIC

DEPOSITS ARE SEDIMENTARY OR ARE CONTAINED WITHIN SEDIMENTARY
SEQUENCES.
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CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS BY
MODE OF ORIGIN
EXOGENIC SEDIMENTS (CLASTIC) ENDOGENIC SEDIMENTS
(rock fragments transported & deposited (CHEMICAL/BIOLOGICAL)
by mechanical agents) (chemical/organic ppt.)

cataclastic pyroclastic soils hybrid precipitation organic

sediments sediments sediments sediments residues

Epiclastic evaporites non-evaporites

sediments

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coarse fine
31
 CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS BY
GRAIN SIZE
Name of Particle Size Range Loose Sediment Consolidated Rock

Boulder >256 mm
Cobble 64 - 256 mm Conglomerate or Breccia
Gravel
Pebble 4 - 64 mm (depends on rounding)
Granule 2 - 4 mm
Very Coarse Sand 1 - 2 mm

Coarse Sand 0.5 - 1 mm

Medium Sand 0.25 - 0.5 mm Sand Sandstone
Fine Sand 0.125 - 0.25 mm
Very Fine Sand 0.0625 - 0.125 mm

Coarse Silt 0.031 - 0.625 mm

Medium Silt 0.016 - 0.031 mm
Silt Siltstone
Fine Silt 0.008 - 0.016 mm
Very Fine Silt 0.004 - 0.008 mm
Clay <0.004 mm Clay Claystone, Mudstone, Shale
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33
SUMMARY OF THE FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

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 PARENT ROCK

Decomposition and leaching

REGOLITH (Al, Fe, Si - soil) Atmospheric Contributors

(layer of loose heterogeneous material covering
abrasion solid rock) Ground Water

TRANSPORTATION precipitation Oceanic Water

Rock flour

Volcanic SEDIMENT

Cosmic (articles of extra-terrestrial origin)

DIAGENISIS

(chemical , physical & biological changes undergone by a sediment

after its initial deposition and after its lithification)

Lithification – process in which sediments compact under

pressure & expel fluid & gradually become rock 35

SEDIMENTARY ROCK
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• THESE ARE THE ALTERATION PRODUCTS OF IGNEOUS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
WHICH OCCUR BY THE INTERACTION OF PRESSURE AND /OR TEMPERATURE.
THE EFFECTS OF METAMORPHISM ARE THE FORMATION OF:
• NEW MINERALS
• CHANGE IN SHAPE AND SIZE OF MINERAL GRAINS
• DEVELOPMENT OF NEW STRUCTURE IN THE ROCK
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS VARY WIDELY. THEY ARE OFTEN
FOLIATED AND SHOW BANDING AND CLEAVAGE IS COMMON DUE TO THE
FORMATION OF MICA (GROUP OF SHEET SILICATE MINERALS) AND OTHER PLATEY
MINERALS PERPENDICULAR TO THE APPLIED PRESSURE.
THERE ARE THREE MAJOR TYPES OF METAMORPHISM 36
CONTACT (THERMAL) METAMORPHISM

• ALTERATION OF ROCK BY HEAT GENERATED FROM THE INTRUSION OF MAGMA

• AT SHALLOW DEPTHS, INTRUDING MAGMA RAISES THE TEMPERATURE OF THE
SURROUNDING ROCK, CAUSING THERMAL ALTERATION.
• THE RELEASE OF HOT FLUIDS (I.E. GASES AND LIQUIDS) INTO THE ROCK BY THE
COOLING MAGMA ALSO CAUSES FORMATION OF NEW MINERALS.
• THE AREA OF METAMORPHISM SURROUNDING AN INTRUSION IS AN AUREOLE.
• THE DEGREE OF METAMORPHISM WITHIN AN AUREOLE DECREASES WITH
DISTANCE FROM THE INTRUSION.
• BESIDES INTRUSIONS CONTACT METAMORPHISM CAN ALSO RESULT FROM LAVA
FLOWS.
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38
DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM

• ASSOCIATED WITH FAULTS (FAULT ZONES) I.E. FRACTURES ALONG WHICH MOVEMENT HAS OCCURRED
AND WHERE ROCKS ARE SUBJECTED TO HIGH LEVELS OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE.
• METAMORPHIC ROCKS THAT RESULT FROM DIFFERENT PRESSURE ARE RESTRICTED TO NARROW ZONES
ADJACENT TO FAULTS.
• MOST OF THE RESULTING ROCKS ARE HARD, DENSE AND FINE GRAINED.

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
• THIS OCCURS OVER A LARGE AREA AND ACCOUNTS FOR THE LARGER PORTION OF METAMORPHIC
ROCKS.
• THE ALTERATION OCCURS UNDER EXTREME TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES AND DEFORMATION ALL
OCCURRING TOGETHER WITHIN THE DEEPER PORTIONS OF THE CRUST.
• ROCKS ALTERED THIS WAY ARE MAINLY FOUND ALONG PLATE BOUNDARIES WHERE ROCKS ARE INTENSELY
DEFORMED.
• THIS TYPE OF METAMORPHISM IS NORMALLY ASSOCIATED WITH MAJOR MOUNTAIN-BUILDING EPISODES.
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40
HOMEWORK

(I) WRITE NOTES ON THE FORMATION OF ORES FOUND IN THE DIFFERENT TYPES
OF ROCK DEPOSITS DISCUSSED ABOVE.

(II) IDENTIFY THE LOCATION OF THE FOLLOWING MINERAL ORE DEPOSITS IN

ZIMBABWE
• IGNEOUS ORE DEPOSITS
• SEDIMENTARY ORE DEPOSITS
• METAMORPHIC ORE DEPOSITS

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 IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS
VIDEO
• IDENTIFYING MINERALS
• HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=32NG9AEZ7_C

42
• GEOLOGISTS USE BOTH HAND SPECIMEN TECHNIQUES (BASED ON PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES) AND INSTRUMENTAL METHODS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF
MINERALS.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES THAT ARE CONSIDERED INCLUDE:
• COLOUR
• LUSTRE
• CRYSTAL FORM
• CLEAVAGE/FRACTURE
• DENSITY
• HARDNESS
• MAGNETISM
• REACTION TO HCL
• STREAK
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• TASTE
INSTRUMENTAL OR CHEMICAL METHODS FOR IDENTIFICATION INCLUDE:
• CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• X-RAY TECHNIQUES (XRF, XRD)
• POLARIZING MICROSCOPES

• EVERY MINING OPERATION SHOULD HAVE A GEOLOGIST PRESENT FOR

IDENTIFICATION, DIRECTION OF BLASTING AND DRILLING AND FOR
ASSAYING OF RUN OF MINE MATERIAL.
• IF YOU DO NOT KNOW WHAT YOU ARE MINING, YOU CANNOT
DETERMINE HOW TO PROCESS THE MATERIAL AND WILL SUFFER LOSSES AT
ALL PROCESSING STAGES.
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47
INTRODUCTION TO MINING AND EXPLORATION

• THE OVERALL SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES IN MODERN MINING CONSISTS OF FIVE

STAGES.
• THESE ARE; PROSPECTING, EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, EXPLOITATION, AND
RECLAMATION.

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49
 PROSPECTING

• THE FIRST STAGE OF SEARCHING FOR MINERAL DEPOSITS IS PROSPECTING.

• BOTH DIRECT (SURFACE DEPOSITS) AND INDIRECT (BELOW THE SURFACE OF THE
EARTH) PROSPECTING TECHNIQUES ARE EMPLOYED.
• THE DIRECT METHOD OF DISCOVERY, NORMALLY LIMITED TO SURFACE DEPOSITS,
CONSISTS OF VISUAL EXAMINATION OF EITHER THE EXPOSURE (OUTCROP) OF
THE DEPOSIT OR THE LOOSE FRAGMENTS (FLOAT) THAT HAVE WEATHERED AWAY
FROM THE OUTCROP.
• GEOLOGIC STUDIES OF THE ENTIRE AREA AUGMENT THIS SIMPLE, DIRECT
TECHNIQUE.
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• THE MOST VALUABLE SCIENTIFIC TOOL EMPLOYED IN THE INDIRECT SEARCH FOR
HIDDEN MINERAL DEPOSITS IS GEOPHYSICS, THE SCIENCE OF DETECTING
ANOMALIES USING PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS OF GRAVITATIONAL, SEISMIC,
MAGNETIC, ELECTRICAL, ELECTROMAGNETIC, AND RADIOMETRIC VARIABLES OF
THE EARTH.
• THE METHODS ARE APPLIED FROM THE AIR, USING AIRCRAFT AND SATELLITES;
ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH; AND BENEATH THE EARTH, USING METHODS
THAT PROBE BELOW THE TOPOGRAPHY.
• GEOCHEMISTRY, THE QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOIL, ROCK, AND WATER
SAMPLES, AND GEOBOTANY,
• THE ANALYSIS OF PLANT GROWTH PATTERNS CAN ALSO BE EMPLOYED AS
PROSPECTING TOOLS.

51
52
 EXPLORATION

• DETERMINES AS ACCURATELY AS POSSIBLE THE SIZE AND VALUE OF A MINERAL

DEPOSIT.
• EXPLORATION GENERALLY SHIFTS TO SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE LOCATIONS,
USING A VARIETY OF MEASUREMENTS TO OBTAIN A MORE POSITIVE PICTURE OF
THE EXTENT AND GRADE OF THE ORE BODY.

53
• REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES MAY BE SUBJECTED TO CHEMICAL, METALLURGICAL, X RAY,
SPECTROGRAPHIC OR RADIOMETRIC EVALUATION TECHNIQUES THAT ARE MEANT TO
ENHANCE THE INVESTIGATOR’S KNOWLEDGE OF THE MINERAL DEPOSIT.
• SAMPLES ARE OBTAINED BY CHIPPING OUTCROPS, TRENCHING, TUNNELING, AND
DRILLING.
• AN EVALUATION OF THE SAMPLES ENABLES THE GEOLOGIST OR MINING ENGINEER
TO CALCULATE THE TONNAGE AND GRADE, OR RICHNESS, OF THE MINERAL DEPOSIT.
• HE OR SHE ESTIMATES THE MINING COSTS, EVALUATES THE RECOVERY OF THE
VALUABLE MINERALS,
• DETERMINES THE ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS, AND ASSESSES OTHER FORESEEABLE
FACTORS IN AN EFFORT TO REACH A CONCLUSION ABOUT THE PROFITABILITY OF
THE MINERAL DEPOSIT.

54
55
 DEVELOPMENT

• THIS INVOLVES OPENING A MINERAL DEPOSIT FOR EXPLOITATION I.E. THE

ACTUAL MINING OF THE DEPOSIT, NOW CALLED THE ORE.
• ACCESS TO THE DEPOSIT MUST BE GAINED EITHER
• (1) BY STRIPPING THE OVERBURDEN, WHICH IS THE SOIL AND/OR ROCK
COVERING THE DEPOSIT, TO EXPOSE THE NEAR-SURFACE ORE FOR MINING OR
• (2) BY EXCAVATING OPENINGS FROM THE SURFACE TO ACCESS MORE DEEPLY
BURIED DEPOSITS TO PREPARE FOR UNDERGROUND MINING.

56
 EXPLOITATION / MINING

• THIS IS THE ACTUAL RECOVERY OF MINERALS FROM THE EARTH IN QUANTITY.

• ALTHOUGH DEVELOPMENT MAY CONTINUE, THE EMPHASIS IN THE PRODUCTION
STAGE IS ON PRODUCTION.
• USUALLY ONLY ENOUGH DEVELOPMENT IS DONE PRIOR TO EXPLOITATION TO
ENSURE THAT PRODUCTION, ONCE STARTED, CAN CONTINUE UNINTERRUPTED
THROUGHOUT THE LIFE OF THE MINE.

57
• THE MINING METHOD SELECTED FOR EXPLOITATION IS DETERMINED MAINLY BY
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MINERAL DEPOSIT AND THE LIMITS IMPOSED BY
SAFETY, TECHNOLOGY, ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS, AND ECONOMICS.
• GEOLOGIC CONDITIONS, SUCH AS THE DIP, SHAPE, AND STRENGTH OF THE ORE
AND THE SURROUNDING ROCK, PLAY A KEY ROLE IN SELECTING THE METHOD.
• TRADITIONAL EXPLOITATION METHODS FALL INTO TWO BROAD CATEGORIES
BASED ON LOCALE: SURFACE OR UNDERGROUND.

58
59
• SURFACE MINING
• INCLUDES MECHANICAL EXCAVATION METHODS SUCH AS OPEN PIT AND OPEN
CAST (STRIP MINING), AND AQUEOUS METHODS SUCH AS PLACER AND
SOLUTION MINING.
• IS THE PREDOMINANT EXPLOITATION PROCEDURE WORLDWIDE.
• OPEN PIT OR OPEN CAST MINING IS USUALLY EMPLOYED TO EXPLOIT A NEAR-
SURFACE DEPOSIT OR ONE THAT HAS A LOW STRIPPING RATIO.
• IT OFTEN NECESSITATES A LARGE CAPITAL INVESTMENT BUT GENERALLY RESULTS
IN HIGH PRODUCTIVITY, LOW OPERATING COST, AND GOOD SAFETY
CONDITIONS.
•

60
61
• UNDERGROUND MINING
• IS USUALLY CLASSIFIED IN THREE CATEGORIES OF METHODS: UNSUPPORTED,
SUPPORTED, AND CAVING.
• THESE ARE DIFFERENTIATED BY THE TYPE OF WALL AND ROOF SUPPORTS USED,
THE CONFIGURATION AND SIZE OF PRODUCTION OPENINGS, AND THE
DIRECTION IN WHICH MINING OPERATIONS PROGRESS.

62
63
 RECLAMATION

• THE FINAL STAGE IN THE OPERATION OF MOST MINES IS RECLAMATION, THE

PROCESS OF CLOSING A MINE AND RECONTOURING, REVEGETATING, AND
RESTORING THE WATER AND LAND VALUES.
• THE BEST TIME TO BEGIN THE RECLAMATION PROCESS OF A MINE IS BEFORE THE
FIRST EXCAVATIONS ARE INITIATED I.E. MINE PLANNING ENGINEERS SHOULD PLAN
THE MINE SO THAT THE RECLAMATION PROCESS IS CONSIDERED AND THE OVERALL
COST OF MINING PLUS RECLAMATION IS MINIMIZED, NOT JUST THE COST OF
MINING ITSELF.
• THE NEW PHILOSOPHY IN THE MINING INDUSTRY IS SUSTAINABILITY, THAT IS, THE
MEETING OF ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL NEEDS OF THE PRESENT WHILE
ENHANCING THE ABILITY OF FUTURE GENERATIONS TO MEET THEIR OWN NEEDS.

64
ABUNDANCE OF METALS ON THE EARTH’S CRUST

• THE TABLE BELOW (EXTRACT FROM BARRY WILLS) SHOWS THE RELATIVE
ABUNDANCE (BY MASS) OF SOME COMMON METALS ON THE EARTH’S CRUST AS
WELL AS THE QUANTITY IN TONNES WITHIN 3.5 KM OF THE CRUST.

65
Element Percentage Abundance Amount in 3.5km of crust (tons)

Al 8.2 1016 - 1018

Fe 5.6 1016 - 1018

Cu 0.0055 1013 - 1014

Ni 0.0075 1013 - 1014

Zn 0.0070 1013 - 1014

Mn 0.095 1015 - 1016

Sn 0.00020 1011 - 1013

Cr 0.010 1014 - 1015

Pb 0.0013 1013 - 1014

Au < 5 X 10-6 < 1011

66
• THE EXTREMELY LOW % ABUNDANCE FIGURES IN THE TABLE (SLIDE 66) SHOW THAT
IF THE METALS WERE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT THE EARTH, THEY
WOULD NOT BE POSSIBLE TO EXTRACT ECONOMICALLY.
• THE GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES OF ROCK FORMATION DESCRIBED ABOVE MAKE IT
POSSIBLE FOR MINERAL DEPOSITS TO BE FOUND IN SUFFICIENT CONCENTRATIONS
TO ENABLE THE METALS TO BE RECOVERED PROFITABLY OR ECONOMICALLY.
• A PARTICULAR MINERAL MAY BE FOUND MAINLY ASSOCIATED WITH ONE ROCK TYPE
(E.G. CASSITERITE IS MAINLY ASSOCIATED WITH GRANITE ROCKS).
• WEATHERING OF A ROCK CAN LEAD TO THE TRANSPORTATION AND RE-DEPOSITION
OF THE MINERAL IN A MORE CONCENTRATED FORM AS A SEDIMENTARY ROCK.
• BESIDES THE CONCENTRATION OF THE MINERAL, THE DEMAND IS ANOTHER FACTOR
WHICH IS USED TO DETERMINE THE MINERAL CAN BE EXTRACTED ECONOMICALLY.
• THUS THE MINIMUM METAL CONTENT (GRADE) REQUIRED FOR A DEPOSIT TO
QUALIFY AS AN ORE VARIES FROM METAL TO METAL.

67
 CONCENTRATION FACTORS

 These are used to determine the viability of a deposit.

 Concentration factor =

68
Mineral Average Crystal Average Minimum Concentration Factor
Abundance Exploitable Grade

Al 8.2 30.0 3.7

Fe 5.6 25 4.5

Cu 0.0055 0.4 72.7

Ni 0.0075 0.5 66.7

Zn 0.0070 4.0 57.4

Mn 0.095 35 368.4

Sn 0.00020 0.5 2 500

Cr 0.010 30.0 3 000

Pb 0.0013 4.0 3 076.9

Au < 5 X 10-6 0.0001 20

69
• THE LOWER THE CONCENTRATION FACTOR THE EASIER IT IS TO FIND A VIABLE
DEPOSIT. WHETHER THE DEPOSIT IS USED WILL THEN DEPEND UPON SUPPLY AND
DEMAND.
• THE TABLE ABOVE SHOWS THAT GOLD CAN BE EXPLOITED AT LOW GRADES
AND IS NOT VERY ABUNDANT.
• GOLD CAN BE RECOVERED PROFITABLY IN ORES CONTAINING 1 PROPORTION
OF THE METAL, WHEREAS IRON ORES CONTAINING LESS THAN ABOUT 45%
METAL ARE REGARDED AS OF LOW GRADE.

70
  Overtime, minimum exploitable grades are reduced as good deposits dry up and new
technology allows mining of low grade deposits. The graph below shows this trend.

% element

in ore

Time

 Tend to end up extracting larger amounts as the element concentration is reduced.

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DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS IN MINERAL
PROCESSING
• MINERAL - NATURALLY OCCURRING SOLID WITH A HIGHLY ORDERED ATOMIC
ARRANGEMENT AND A DEFINITE (BUT NOT FIXED) CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
• GANGUE - UNWANTED MINERALS IN ASSOCIATION WITH VALUES (VALUABLE
MINERALS)
• ROCK - NATURALLY OCCURRING NON-HOMOGENOUS MASS OF SOLID
MATERIAL WHICH MAY CONSIST OF ONE OR MORE MINERALS.
• ORE - A ROCK DEPOSIT WHICH CONTAINS MINERALS IN SUFFICIENT QUANTITY
SO AS TO BE CAPABLE OF ECONOMIC EXTRACTION.

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• ORE GRADE - CONCENTRATION OF THE VALUABLE COMPONENT (MINERAL) IN
THE ORE.
• CONCENTRATE - PRODUCT OF THE BENEFICIATION PROCESS WHICH CONTAINS
MOST OF THE VALUABLE MINERALS.
• TAILINGS - WASTE/DISCARD PRODUCT FROM A BENEFICIATION PROCESS
WHICH CONTAINS PREDOMINANTLY GANGUE MINERALS.
• MIDDLINGS - STREAM FROM THE CONCENTRATION THAT CONTAINS AN
APPRECIABLE AMOUNT OF THE MINERAL BUT NOT ENOUGH TO BE REGARDED AS
CONCENTRATE.
• MINE - SITE OF EXTRACTION OF THE ORE, CAN BE OPEN-CAST OR
UNDERGROUND.

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• ROM (RUN-OF-MINE) – THIS IS ORE ‘AS MINED’ BEFORE PROCESSING (ORE
ENTERING THE MILL FROM THE MINE).
• MILL (MINERAL PROCESSING/ PLANT CONCENTRATOR) – USUALLY LOCATED AT
THE MINE SITE AND CONCERNED WITH BENEFICIATION OF THE ROM. IT REDUCES
BULK OF THE ORE TO BE TRANSPORTED TO AND PROCESSED BY SMELTER.
• SMELTER - WHERE THE CONCENTRATE FROM THE MILL IS PROCESSED INTO A
PURE METAL PRODUCT. THEY ARE USUALLY LOCATED IN AREAS WHERE ENERGY IS
RELATIVELY CHEAP AND WHERE ACCESS TO ROAD, RAIL AND SEA-LINKS IS
AVAILABLE FOR SHIPMENT OF FUEL AND SUPPLIES TO AND PRODUCTS FROM THE
SMELTER.

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ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION OF MP
• SAVINGS IN FREIGHT.
• REDUCED LOSS OF METALS AT THE SMELTER.
• REDUCTION IN TOTAL SMELTING OR REFINING COSTS.

PRINCIPAL STEPS INVOLVED

• PHYSICAL
1. SIZE REDUCTION
2. SEPARATION OF PARTICLES OF DISSIMILAR PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• CHEMICAL
1. LIBERATION OF SIMILAR PARTICLES FROM EACH OTHER
2. SEPARATION OF CHEMICALLY DISSIMILAR PARTICLES
75
 • PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS ARE EXPLOITED DURING THE
SEPARATION PROCESSES.

Property Process Used

Hardness Selective comminution
Relative density Gravity / DM separation
Magnetic susceptibility Magnetic separation
Physical Electro-conductivity Electrostatic separation
Optical properties Optical sorting
Radioactivity differences Detection of activity

Chemical – Surface chemistry Froth flotation

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• THE FORM IN WHICH MINERALS ARE FOUND ON THE EARTH’S CRUST OR AS SEA-
BED DEPOSITS DEPENDS ON THEIR REACTIVITY WITH THE ENVIRONMENT.
• THE COMMON ELEMENTS OR COMPOUNDS THAT REACT WITH METALS INCLUDE
OXYGEN, SULPHUR, HALIDES, SILICA, CARBON DIOXIDE ETC.
• LESS REACTIVE METALS ARE USUALLY FOUND IN THE NATIVE OR METALLIC FORM.
(NOBLE METALS)
• THE MOVE REACTIVE METALS ARE ALWAYS FOUND IN COMPOUND FORM, I.E.
OXIDES, SULPHIDES, SILICATES, HALIDES AND CARBONATES.

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EXAMPLES
• - GOLD AND PLATINUM METALS ARE FOUND PRINCIPALLY IN THE NATIVE OR
METALLIC FORM.
• - SILVER, COPPER, AND MERCURY ARE FOUND NATIVE AS WELL AS IN THE FORM
OF SULPHIDES, CARBONATES, AND CHLORIDES.
• - THE MORE REACTIVE METALS ARE ALWAYS IN COMPOUND FORM, SUCH AS THE
OXIDES AND SULPHIDES OF IRON AND THE OXIDES AND SILICATES OF
ALUMINIUM AND BERYLLIUM.

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• EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY IS THEREFORE EMPLOYED TO REDUCE THE METALS
FROM THE COMPOUND FORM TO THE ELEMENTAL STATE.
• IN ORDER FOR EXTRACTIVE METALLURGICAL PROCESSES TO BE EFFICIENT THERE
IS NEED TO PREPARE THE ORE FOR METAL EXTRACTION.
• MINERAL PROCESSING IS THEREFORE THE OPERATION THAT FOLLOWS MINING
AND INVOLVES DIFFERENT PROCESSES THAT PREPARE THE ORE FOR SUBSEQUENT
EXTRACTION.
• THE ORE PREPARATION STAGES INCLUDE SIZE REDUCTION AND
CONCENTRATION.
• THE POOR GRADE AND THE COMPLEX COMPOSITION OF THE ORES BEING
PROCESSED CURRENTLY MAKES MINERAL PROCESSING A MAJOR OPERATION IN
THE EXTRACTION SCHEME.

79
N.B THE TERM "MINERAL" IS ALSO OFTEN USED IN A MUCH MORE EXTENDED SENSE
TO INCLUDE ANYTHING OF ECONOMIC VALUE WHICH IS EXTRACTED FROM THE
EARTH. THUS, COAL, CHALK, CLAY, AND GRANITE DO NOT FIT THE GEOLOGICAL
DEFINITION OF A MINERAL, BUT DUE TO THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE DETAILS
OF THEIR PRODUCTION ARE USUALLY INCLUDED IN NATIONAL FIGURES FOR
MINERAL PRODUCTION. SUCH MATERIALS ARE, IN FACT, ROCKS.

• THE ENORMOUS GROWTH OF INDUSTRIALISATION FROM THE EIGHTEENTH

CENTURY ONWARD LED TO DRAMATIC INCREASES IN THE ANNUAL OUTPUT OF
MOST MINERAL COMMODITIES, PARTICULARLY METALS.
• THE PRICE OF METALS IS GOVERNED MAINLY BY SUPPLY AND DEMAND. SUPPLY
INCLUDES BOTH NEWLY MINED AND RECYCLED METAL. RECYCLING IS NOW A
SIGNIFICANT COMPONENT OF THE LIFECYCLE OF SOME METALS- ABOUT 60%
OF LEAD SUPPLY COMES FROM RECYCLED SOURCES.

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 ORE HANDLING

• ACCOUNTS FOR 30-60% OF THE TOTAL DELIVERED PRICE OF RAW MATERIALS.

• INCLUDES TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND FEEDING OF THE ORE IN A MINERAL
PROCESSING UNIT, DURING ITS VARIOUS STAGES OF TREATMENT.
• AT THE MINE SITE BROKEN ORE IS LOADED BY SHOVELS INTO TRUCKS (200T)
WHICH DEPOSIT MATERIAL INTO THE PRIMARY CRUSHING UNIT WHERE IT IS
BROKEN INTO SIZEABLE CHUNKS AND CAN BE TRANSPORTED TO THE MILL.
• THE MATERIAL IS TRANSPORTED BY SUITABLE CONVEYORS TO THE MILL.

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 TRANSPORTATION

• THERE ARE A NUMBER OF TRANSPORTATION METHODS AVAILABLE THESE DEPEND

ON:
(i) THE PARTICLE SIZES OF MATERIAL TO BE TRANSPORTED,
(ii) DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PROCESSING UNITS
(iii) POSITIONING OF THE PROCESS UNITS FROM EACH OTHER I.E. VERTICAL,
HORIZONTAL INCLINED.

82
 CONVEYORS

• WHEEL-LESS DRIVER-LESS SYSTEMS.

• CAN OPERATE HORIZONTALLY OR AT AN INCLINATION.
• MAJORITY OF CONVEYORS IN INDUSTRY ARE POWERED BY ELECTRIC MOTORS.

83
84
BELT CONVEYOR

• COMPRISED OF AN ENDLESS FLEXIBLE BELT OPERATING OVER:

- DRIVE PULLEYS (HEAD, BEND, SNUB) – BELT DRIVE
- TAKE-UP (HEAD) OR COUNTERWEIGHT (TAIL) – BELT TENSIONING
- IDLERS – INVERSE BELT CAPACITY
• SUITABLE FOR HANDLING MANY MATERIALS IN A WIDE RANGE OF PARTICLE
SIZES OVER LONG DISTANCES AND INCLINED AREAS.
• LOW POWER REQUIREMENTS, HIGH CAPACITY, SIMPLE AND DEPENDABLE
OPERATION.

85
86
BELT LOADING
• FEED CHUTES ARE NORMALLY USED FOR FEEDING THE BELT.
• THE CHUTES SHOULD BE DESIGNED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO MINIMISE LOADING
SHOCK ON THE BELT WHICH WOULD CAUSE THE BELT TO TRIP.
- ANGLE OF THE CHUTE
- BAFFLES IN THE CHUTE

BELT DISCHARGE
• DISCHARGE USUALLY DONE AT THE HEAD PULLEY.
• DISCHARGE AT DIFFERENT POINTS CAN BE ACHIEVED BY USING A TIPPER.

87
88
• MODERN PLANTS HAVE INTERLOCKING SYSTEMS THAT ENSURE SAFETY AND
UNNECESSARY DAMAGE TO THE BELT SYSTEM.
• THE INTERLOCKING SYSTEM AUTOMATICALLY STOPS THE BELT SYSTEM IN THE
EVENT OF BELT FAILURE.
• THE INTERLOCK CAN ALSO INCLUDE THE MACHINE FEEDING THE BELT AND THE
MACHINE FED BY THE BELT.

89
APRON CONVEYOR
• CONSISTS OF SERIES OF APRON PANS ATTACHED TO A CHAIN OR TO EACH
OTHER.
• HANDLE A WIDE VARIETY OF MATERIAL BUT BEST FOR HEAVY, ABRASIVE OR
LUMPY MATERIAL.

90
FLIGHT CONVEYOR
• USE SCRAPER PLATES CARRIED BY ONE OR TWO STRANDS OF CHAIN TO PUSH
COAL OR OTHER NON-ABRASIVE ORE.

91
• CHAIN DRAG CONVEYOR
• SINGLE STRANDS OF WIDE DRAG CHAINS SLIDE THE MATERIAL IN STEEL, HARD
IRON OR CONCREATE TROUGHS.

92
SCREW CONVEYOR
• WIDE RANGE OF BULK MATERIAL OF FINE AND MODERATE SIZES.
• CONSIST OF HELICALLY-FORMED FLIGHTING ON REVOLVING SHAFTS.
• GEN. MOUNTED IN STATIONERY/ENCLOSED TROUGHS WHICH ARE
WATER/STEAM JACKETED FOR COOLING OR DRYING.
• ROTATION OF THE SCREW ADVANCES MATERIAL.

93
 ELEVATORS

• USED WHERE THERE IS SPACE LIMITATION.

• USED FOR VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION.

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BUCKET ELEVATORS
• MOST WIDELY USED FOR ELEVATING BULK MATERIAL.
• BUCKETS ARE MOUNTED ON CHAINS OR BELTS.
• RECEIVE MATERIAL AT THE BOOT AND DISCHARGE IT OVER THE HEAD WHEEL BY
CENTRIFUGAL (FINE/MEDIUM SIZED) ACTION OR BY GRAVITY (COARSE AND
DIFFICULT TO HANDLE).

95
HYDRAULIC TRANSPORT
• WRITE NOTES ON THE USE OF HYDRAULIC TRANSPORT IN THE MINERALS
INDUSTRY.

96
 ORE STORAGE
• THIS IS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF THE PROCESS SINCE DIFFICULT PARTS OF THE
OPERATION OF MINING AND MILLING ARE PERFORMED AT DIFFERENT RATES.
• SOME ARE BATCH AND OTHERS CONTINUOUS.
• SOME ARE SUBJECT TO MORE FREQUENT INTERRUPTION FOR REPAIRS THAT OTHERS.
• THEREFORE RESERVOIRS FOR MATERIAL HAVE TO BE PROVIDED AT DIFFERENT STEPS
TO ENSURE SMOOTH OPERATION.
• THE OTHER ADVANTAGE OF STORAGE IS THAT IT ALLOWS FOR BLENDING OF
DIFFERENT ORES, THUS PROVIDING A CONSISTENT FEED TO THE MILL (TRIPPER &
SHUTTLE CONVEYORS ARE USED FOR THIS SYSTEM).
• DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF THE MATERIAL TO BE TREATED, STORAGE IS
ACCOMPLISHED IN STOCKPILES, BINS OR TANKS.
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STOCKPILES:
• USED TO STORE COARSE ORE OF LOW VALUE.
• MATERIAL RECLAIMED FROM MATERIAL BY USE OF FRONT-END LOADERS, BUCKET-
WHEEL RECLAIMER OR RECLAIM TUNNEL SYSTEM.
• CONICAL STOCKPILE OR ELONGATED STOCKPILE.

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BINS:
• THESE CAN BE MADE OF WOOD, CONCRETE OR STEEL.
• MATERIAL RECLAIMED BY USE OF DISCHARGE GATES OR VIBRATING FEEDERS.

CONDITIONING TANKS USED FOR PULP STORAGE:

• CONTINUOUS AGITATION/MIXING TO PREVENT SETTLING OF PARTICLES.

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REMOVAL OF HARMFUL MATERIAL
• HAND SORTING FROM CONVEYOR BELTS
• ELECTROMAGNETS – TO REMOVE IRON AND STEEL OR OTHER MAGNETIC
METALS (PREVENT DAMAGE TO CRUSHER).
• METAL DETECTOR – HOW ARE THE METALS DETECTED? BELT TRIPS WHEN METAL
PASSES BELOW THE DETECTOR.
• SCREENING – TRASH REMOVAL.
• WASHING ORE – TO REMOVE DIRT FROM THE SURFACE OF THE ORE (WHICH
MAY INTERFERE WITH THE CONCENTRATION PROCESS)

100