COHESIVE DEVICES

Introduction:
• What makes a text cohere?

• What differentiates a cohesive grammatical unit from a random

collection of sentences?
 Introduction:
• Cohension and coherence are terms used in discourse analysis
and text linguistics to describe the properties of written texts.

• Advertising language tends not to use clear markers of

cohesion, but is interpreted as being coherent.
 Definitions:
 Coherence:
The ways a text makes sense to readers & writer through the
relevance and accessibility of its configuration of concepts,
ideas and theories.

 Cohesion:
The grammatical and lexical relationship between different
elements of a text which hold it together.
 Coherence :
• a semantic property of discourse formed through the
interpretation of each individual sentence relative to
the interpretation of other sentences, with
"interpretation" implying interaction between the text,
the reader and the writer.
• a property that a reader will discern in the text
• allows the reader to make sense of the text
• refers to the semantic unity created between the ideas,
sentences, paragraphs and sections of a piece of
writing.
Coherence vs. Cohesion
Coherence:
• very general principle of
interpretation of language in
context
• fewer formal linguistic
features
e.g vocabulary choice
• relationships deal with text
as a whole
• based on primarily semantic
relationships
 errors much more
obvious
Cohesion:
• formal linguistic features
e.g repetition,reference
• semantic relationships
between sentences and
within sentences
• determined by lexically and
grammatically overt
intersentential relationships
 more recognizable
 Is it coherent or not?
• The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's
bodies by making mummies of them. Mummies several
thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. The
skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features of
the mummies were evident. It is possible to diagnose the
disease they suffered in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and
nutritional deficiencies. The process was remarkably effective.
Sometimes apparent were the fatal afflictions of the dead
people: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head, and
polio killed a child king. Mummification consisted of removing
the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and
out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages.
Below is the same paragraph revised for coherence. Italics indicates pronouns and repeated
key words, bold indicates transitional tag-words, and underlining indicates parallel
structures.
• The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead
people's bodies by making mummies of them. In short,
mummification consisted of removing the internal organs,
applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then
wrapping the body in layers of bandages. And the process was
remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousand years
old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth,
fingernails and toenails, and facial features are still evident.
Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional
deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions
are still apparent: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the
head; a child king died from polio.
According to Halliday & Hasan,

A text is a semantic unit whose parts are linked together by

explicit cohesive ties.
Cohesive tie: a semantic and /or lexico-grammatic relation
between an element in text and some other element that is
crucial to interpretetion of it.

• Eventhough within-sentence ties occur the cohesive ties across

‘sentence boundaries’are those which allow sequences of
sentences to be understood as text.

Cohesion therefore defines a text as text.

 Halliday & Hasan identify general categories of
cohesive devices that signal coherence in
texts:

• Reference
• Ellipsis
• Substitution
Grammatical
• Conjunction
Cohesion
• Lexical Cohesion
Halliday & Hasan's Taxonomy of Cohesive Devices :

• Reference :
Replacement of words and expressions with pro-forms.
e.g pronouns,pro-modifiers.

Three types of reference:

• Personal
• Demonstrative
• Comparative
TYPES OF COHESIVE DEVICES
• ANAPHORIC REFERENCE
• CATAPHORIC REFERENCE
• LOGICAL CONNECTORS
• LEXICAL DEVICES
• GRAMMATICAL DEVICES
ANAPHORIC DEVICES
• Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers
back to other ideas in the text for its meaning.
• Example
‘I went out with Jo on Sunday. She looked awful.'
• ´She` clearly refers to Jo, there is no need to repeat her
name.
CATAPHORIC DEVICES
• A cataphoric reference unit refers to another unit that is
introduced later on in the text/speech.
• To understand the unit referred to by a cataphoric
reference you would need to look ahead in the
text/speech.
• Example
'When he arrived, John noticed that the door was open'.
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
• Logical connectors are used to join or connect two ideas
that have a particular relationship.
• These relationships can be: sequential (time), reason
and purpose, adversative (opposition and/or
unexpected result), condition.
•  Within each category, the words used to join the ideas or
clauses are used differently, with different grammar and
punctuation.
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Subordinating Introduce adverb clauses
conjunctions Either the dependent clause or the
independent clause may come first in
the sentence, with no change in
meaning
ex: Before he came, we didn't have a
physical education teacher.
We didn't have a physical education
teacher before he came.
 
Prepositions Is followed by a noun or noun phrase
Either clause may appear first
ex: He didn't come to class due to his
illness.
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Transitions and Joins two sentences separated by a period or
Conjunctive adverbs two clauses separated by a semi-colon.
Only one possible order of the sentences
The transition may appear clause initial,
clause final, or between the subject and verb
of thesecond sentence.
ex: He was sick. Nevertheless, he came to
class.
Conjunctions One possible order
A comma is used before the conjunction
In academic writing, do not begin a sentence
with a conjunction
ex: He didn't do his homework, so he didn't
pass the class.
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Relationship Expressions
Addition Also, in addition, too, moreover, and, besides, furthermore,
equally important, then, finally, as well as, further, indeed, in
fact
Alternative Either...or, if only, instead of, in that case, neither… nor,
otherwise, rather than, unless, whether…or, or, in other
words
Causation As a result of, because, due to, for, on account of, since
Comparison Similarly, likewise, in the same way, not only… but also,
as…as
Concession Of course, to be sure, certainly, granted
Contrast But, yet, however, on the other hand, nevertheless,
nonetheless, conversely, in contrast, by contrast, still, at the
same time, although, despite, even if, whereas, by
comparison
Degree or extent For the most part, so…that, to some extent, to some
degree, to a certain extent, such…that, in part, partly
Example For example, for instance, thus, as an illustration, namely,
specifically, such as, in that
LOGICAL DEVICES
Place In the front, in the foreground, in the back, in
the background, at the side, adjacent, nearby,
in the distance, here, there

Purpose So that, to, so as to, in order to, in such a way as

to
Result Therefore, thus, as a result, so, accordingly, it
follows that, consequently,
Summary/ Hence, in short, in brief, in summary, in
conclusion conclusion, to sum up, to conclude
Time First, second, third, next, then, finally, afterwards,
sequence before, soon, later, meanwhile, subsequently,
immediately, eventually, currently
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Sequential (Time)
Subordinating conjunctions Until after before when
While since once
whenever
as soon as as long as by
the time
Prepositions During after before since
until
upon
Conjunctive adverbs and Then next after that following that
transitions before that afterwards meanwhile
beforehand
Conjunctions and then
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Causal (Reason and Purpose, Cause and Effect)
 

Subordinating because as since in as much as

conjunctions now that as long as such...that
[such a/an + adjective + noun + that]
so...that
[so +adjective or adverb + that]
[so much/many/little/few + noun + that]

expressing purpose
so that
in order that
Prepositions because of due to  in order to
Conjunctive adverbs therefore consequently
and transitions
Conjunctions so
 
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Adversative (unexpected result, contrast, opposition)

Subordinating even though although

conjunctions though (in spite of the fact that)
while whereas where
Prepositions despite in spite of
Conjunctive adverbs however nonetheless
and transitions Nevertheless on the other hand
in contrast on the contrary
Conjunctions but...anyway but...still
yet...still but
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Condition
Subordinating conjunctions If
unless
even if
providing (that)
provided (that)
in case
whether or not
only if
Conjunctive adverbs and otherwise
transitions
Conjunctions or else
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Reduced Adverb Clauses

Rule: If the subject of the adverb clause and the main clause are
the same, the adverb clause may be reduced.

To reduce, drop the subject I had an accident while I was

and the verb be in the adverb
clause.
driving past the REI climbing
rock.
I had an accident while driving
past the REI climbing rock.
Even though she was hungry,
she didn’t eat the pie.
Even though hungry, she didn’t
eat the pie.
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
If there is not be verb, change
the adverb clause verb to the
present participle.
You may omit the subordinating
conjunction (while)
with simultaneous actions.
Before she owned a pet, she
was afraid of dogs.
Before owning a pet, she was
afraid of dogs. 
While camping at Mt. Rainier, I
saw several mountain goats.
Camping at Mt. Rainier, I saw
several mountain goats.
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Because is always omitted in Because she didn’t get accepted
reduced clauses. to the university, she is going to
attend community college.

Not being accepted to the

university, she is going to attend
community college. 

You may also omit being in the Being dyslexic, he doesn’t like to

reduced clause. read in public.

Dyslexic, he doesn’t like to read in

public.
LOGICAL CONNECTORS
Remember: Only sentences in which While I was eating corn on the
the subjects of both clauses are the cob,my tooth fell out. 
same maybe be reduced.
This adverb clause cannot be reduced
because the subject of the adverb
clause is not the same as the subject
of the main clause.
LEXICAL DEVICES
• In text, lexical cohesion is the result of chains of related
words that contribute to the continuity of lexical meaning.
These lexical chains are a direct result of units of text
being "about the same thing," and finding text structure
involves finding units of text that are about the same
thing.
LEXICAL DEVICES
• Lexical cohesion refers to the ties created between lexical
elements, such as words (e.g. rabbit), groups (e.g. the
velveteen rabbit), and phrases (e.g. get up steam)
(Halliday 537).
• These lexical ties can occur over long passages of text or
discourse.
• The primary paradigmatic types of lexical cohesion
(meaning words of the same type or class) are repetition,
synonymy, hyponymy, and meronymy.
LEXICAL DEVICES
• Repetition: using the same word over again, but not restricted to
the same morphological form .
• E.g. using run (V), run (N), ran, running, runner, etc., all within the
same text.
• Synonymy: using words that are in some way Synonymous, or,
in the case of antonymy, in some way antonymous.
• E.g. Synonyms: sound-noise; Antonyms: sound-silence
Hyponymy: one word represents "a class of thing and the
second either a superclass or a subclass, or another class at the
same level" (574)E.g. tree- oak, pine, elm
• Meronymy: words that refer to parts of a whole.
• E.g. tree- trunk, branch, leaf
LEXICAL DEVICES
• There is a different type of lexical cohesion that occurs at
the syntagmatic level (the level of syntax): 
• Collocation: refers to the tendency of words to co-occur.
• For example, when one sees the noun pipe in a sentence,
it is more probable that the verb to smoke will also appear
in the sentence.
• In another example, the noun bicycle could more likely
occur with the verb to ride then any random verb.
GRAMMATICAL DEVICES