Functional Groups

Organic compounds were originally obtained from plants and

animals, which even today are still the direct sources of many
important chemical.
The various classes of compounds are identified by the presence
of certain characteristic groups called functional groups.
For example:
If a hydroxyl group
(-OH) is substituted for a hydrogen atom in an alkanes molecule,
the resulting compound is an alcohol.
• Thus alcohols are a class of compounds in which the
functional group is the hydroxyl group.
• The chemical and physical properties of an organic compound
depend on (1) kinds and number of functional groups present.
(2) the shape and size of the molecule.
• The Structures of alcohol, ethers, and phenols may be derived
from the structure of water by replacing the hydrogen atoms
of water with alkyl groups R aromatic rings.
• The R groups in ethers can be the same or different and can be
alkyl groups or aromatic rings.
• Classification of Alcohol
• Structurally an alcohol is derived from an aliphatic hydrocarbon by the
replacement of at least one hydrogen atom with a hydroxyl group (-oN)
Alcohols are represented by the general formula ROH, with methanol
(Ch3oH) being the first member of the homologous series.
• (R represents an alkyl or substituted alkyl group).
• Alcohol are classified as primary depending on whether the
carbon atom which the –OH group is attached directly bonded to
one, two or three other carbon atoms, respectives.
• Polyhydroxy alcohols and polyols> are general terms for alcohols
that have more than on –OH group per molecule.
• Physical properties of alcohol
• The physical properties of alcohol are related to those of both water and
alkane hydrocarbons. An alcohol molecule is made up of a water like
hydroxyl group joined to a hydrocarbon like alkyl group.
• One striking property of alcohols their relatively high boiling points. The
simplest alcohol , methanol, boils at 65℃ . But methane , the simplest
hydrocarbon boil's at −162℃ . The boiling point of the normal
alcohols increase in a regular fashion with increasing number of carbon
atoms.
• Branched chain alcohols have lower boiling points than the
corresponding straight chains alcohol.
Name Boiling Name Boiling
Point(℃) Point(℃)
Pentane 36 1- pentanol 138
hexane 69 1-hexanol 157
octane 126 1-octanol 197
Decane 114 1- Decanol 233
• Comparison of the boiling points of Ethanol 1,2 ethane and 1 propanol.
Name Formula Molar mass Boiling point

Name Formula Molar mass Boiling point

Ethanol 𝐶𝐻3 CH2 OH 46 78

1,2 Ethanediol 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝐻2𝑂𝐻62 197

1- propanol 𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝐻2𝐶𝐻2𝑂𝐻 60 97
 oxidation
• One important reaction is oxidation . Carbon can exist in several
oxidation . Carbon can exist in several oxidation states, ranging from
• -4 to +4. In the -4 oxidation state such as in methane the carbon atom is
completely oxidized that is it is in the highest oxidation state (-4)

• Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen or the gain of bonds for oxygen by

the organic reactant.
• Carbon atoms exist in progressively higher stages of oxidation in
different functional group compounds.
 𝐴𝑙𝑑𝑒ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑒𝑠
• Alkanes→ 𝐴𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑠 → → 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑐 Acids→ 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 →
𝐾𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
• Oxidation State of carbon in one Carbon Compounds
Compound No. of C-O bonds Oxidation State

𝐶𝐻4 Methane 0 −4

CH3OH Methanol 1 −2

H2 C= 0 Methanol 2 0
(formaldehyde)
O Metanoic acid (fomic 3 +2
∥ acid)
HC−𝑂𝐻

0= 𝐶 = 𝑂 Carbon dioxide 4 +4
• The hydroxyl group an organic compound the capability
(function) of forming an aldehyde ketone or carboxylic acid
compounds as plastic, antibiotics and fertilizers are synthesized
starting with alcohol . The following equations represents
generalized oxidation reactions in which the oxidizing agent is
represented by (o).
• Dehydration
→Implies the elimination of water.
Alcohols can be dehydrated to form alkenes or ether. One of the
more effective de-hydrating agents is sulfuric acid.
• Alkenes> Intra molecular Dehydration
• The formation of alkene s from alcohols requires a relatively high temperature.
Water is removed from with in a single alcohol molecule, and a carbon- carbon
double bonds form.
• To predict the major product