CHEMISTRY 1

Q2_Week 6
January 9-13, 2023
COMPETENCIES
•Describe the different functional groups.
•Describe the structural isomerism; give
examples
•Describe some simple reactions of
organic compounds: combustion of
organic fuels, addition, condensation,
and saponification of fats
Organic Compounds
•Are carbon-containing substances. They
form covalent bonds.
•Saturated bond- those that contain
single bonds.
•Unsaturated bond- those with double
and triple bonds.
•Organic molecules contain a nonspecific
part designated R- (for alkyl compounds)
or Ar- (for aromatic compounds, plus a
specific part called functional groups.

•There are two major classes of organic

compounds: the hydrocarbons and the
hydrocarbon derivatives.
Hydrocarbons
•Are the simplest organic compounds,
containing only carbon and hydrogen. It
can be classified into four series of
compounds:
•alkanes,
•alkenes,
•alkynes, and
•aromatic hydrocarbons.
 Classes of hydrocarbons
Class Type Bond Type -ending Examples Name of
Formula* compounds
Alkane CnH2n+2 Saturated -ane CH3 - CH3 Ethane
single bond
Alkene CnH2n Unsaturated -ene CH2 = CH2 Ethene
double bond
Alkyne CnH2n-2 Unsaturated -yne HC ≡ CH Ethyne
triple bond
Aromatic aromatic C6H6 Benzene
*n is the number of carbon atoms
Alkane
•Describe as saturated because all the
carbon atoms utilize single bonds.
•Compared to alkenes and alkynes,
alkane have the most number of
hydrogen atoms.
•Generally inert and stable
•The major source are crude oil or
petroleum, and natural gas.
Alkene
• When the carbon-to-carbon bonds are double
bonds.
• The number of hydrogen atoms is twice the
number of carbon atoms.
• Describe as unsaturated because they contain
less than the maximum amount of hydrogen
that can be bonded to the carbon framework.
• Generally, they are more reactive than alkanes.
Alkene
•Alkenes can be converted to alkanes by
hydrogenation.
•Hydrogenation – the process of reducing
or saturating organic compounds in the
presence of a catalyst, which can be
nickel, palladium or platinum. It is used
in the production of lard.
Alkyne
•Contain at least one triple bond.
•They are unsaturated and are more
reactive than alkanes.
•Acetylene- the simplest alkyne. Widely
used in acetylene torches for welding
purposes, and as raw material for the
manufacture of synthetic rubber.
Aromatic hydrocarbons
• An organic compounds characterized by the
presence of a benzene ring.
• Benzene – has six carbon atoms joined by
alternating single and double bonds. It is used
in the synthesis of nylon and polystyrene but
its use has diminished in recent years because
of its carcinogenic properties.
• Aromatic hydrocarbons come mainly from coal.
Hydrocarbon Derivatives w/o the Carbonyl
Carbon
• Organic halides are of the type formula R-X, where R is an
alipathic or aromatic compound and X is a halogen(Cl, Br, I).
• Organic halides are used as solvents in households and
industry.
• Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4) was a common household
solvent until it was banned for its toxicity and carcinogenic
effects.
• Chloroform (CHCl3) was used as an anesthetic.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), e.g., Freon-12 (CF2Cl2) were
used as propellant and refrigerant gas, but they were
replaced because they are harmful to the ozone layer.
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives w/o the Carbonyl Carbon
Alcohols of the type formula ROH
• Where R is an aliphatic group are common and have many
practical uses.
• Ethanol (C2H5OH) and isopropyl alcohol are used as
disinfectants.
• Alcohols are most versatile of all organic compounds
because they can be converted to other families of
compounds.
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives w/o the Carbonyl Carbon
Phenols of the type formula ArOH
• i.e., an –OH bonded to a benzene ring, are industrially
important in the manufacture of dyes and plastics.
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives w/o the Carbonyl Carbon
Ethers of the type formula ROH’
• Are organic compounds in which two hydrocarbon groups
are bonded to the same atom of oxygen.
• They are not very reactive compounds, so they are commonly
used as solvents.
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives w/o the Carbonyl Carbon
Amines of the type formula RNH2
• Organic compounds that can be considered to be derivatives
of ammonia, NH3
• Present in many compounds with biological activity:
• Epinephrine - a hormone
• Niacin - a vitamin
• Nicotine, amphetamine, and cocaine – stimulants
Hydrocarbon Derivatives w/o the Carbonyl Carbon
Amines of the type formula RNH2
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives the Carbonyl Carbon
Aldehydes of the type formula RCHO
• Where R is either an alkyl or an aromatic group. Is a
carbonyl in which the carbon atom is bonded to at least one
hydrogen atom.
Dead animals
are preserved
in jars of 10%
formalin or
70% alcohol
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives the Carbonyl Carbon
Ketones of the type formula RCOR’
• Where the H of an aldehyde is replaced by another R group.
Involves carbonyl in which the carbon atom makes a single
bond with two R-groups.
• e.g., acetone or dimethyl ketone
• Aldehydes and ketones usually have appealing tastes and
fragrances.
• They are often used as flavoring in food and candies, or as
fragrance in inhalants and perfumes.
• The simplest aldehyde, formaldehyde (CH2O), is used as a
“pickling” solution for biological specimens.
• Acetone, (CH3)2 C=O, is used as solvent for removing nail
polish and marker ink.
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives the Carbonyl Carbon
Carboxylic acid of the type formula RCOOH
• Acetic acid, CH3COOH, is the acid in vinegar.
• Carboxylic acids with long chains are usually solids at room
temperature.
• They are called fatty acids and may either be saturated or
unsaturated.
• Examples:
lauric acid (12C, saturated) CH3(CH2)10COOH
palmitic acid (16C, saturated) CH3(CH2)14COOH
linoleic acid ((18C, unsaturated)
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives the Carbonyl Carbon
Esters of the type formula RCOOR’
• Are organic compounds that have carboxylic acid groups in
which hydrogen of the hydroxyl group has been replaced by
an alkyl group.
• Considered derivatives of carboxylic acids because of their
structural similarity.
• It gives pears, bananas, oranges, and apples a pleasant and
fruity odor.
 Hydrocarbon Derivatives the Carbonyl Carbon
Amides of the type formula RC-NH2
• Are formed by the reaction of organic acids with amines.
• The peptide bonds found in proteins are special amine
bonds.
 Structural Isomerism
• Are molecules of the same molecular formula, but of
different arrangement of atoms.
• Different types of isomerism include
• Chain isomerism
• Position isomerism
• Functional group isomerism
 Chain isomerism
• It arises because of the possibility of branching in carbon
chains.
• Example: Butane, C4H10
Straight-chain isomer Branched isomer
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3 CH CH3
 Position isomerism
• Have the same functional groups but in different
positions on the same carbon chain.
• Example is a compound with molecular formula
C6H4Br2, of which there are three isomers:
• 1,2-dibromobenzene
• 1,3-dibromobenzene
• 1,4-dibromobenzene

• These isomers differ in the position of the bromine

atoms on the cyclic structure.
Position isomerism
 Functional group isomerism
• Also referred to as functional isomers, these isomers
where the molecular formula remains the same, but the
type of functional group in the atom is changed.
• This is possible by rearranging the atoms within the
molecule so that they’re bonded together in different
ways.
Example: C2H6O2
 Some Reactions of Organic Compounds
• combustion of organic fuels,
• addition,
• condensation, and
• saponification of fats
 Combustion of organic fuels
• Just about any molecule with some hydrocarbon can
combust. Combustion involves oxidation of the carbon in
an organic molecule.
• The fuels that are burned on a large scale to provide
energy for heat or electricity include the fossil fuels:
natural gas, petroleum products, and coal.
• Natural gas is primary methane, and combusts
according to this reaction:
 Combustion of organic fuels
• Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a liquid product
with a composition that varies depending on the source.
• Petroleum is thus refined, leading to the production of
many commercial products.( gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil)
• While the specific equations describing the combustion
of these substances varies based on the makeup of the
reactant, the general pattern remains: fuel molecules
react with molecular oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O.
 Combustion of organic fuels
• Coal, a solid fossil fuel, is also a mixture but combust
well due to the presence of hydrocarbons in the
substance.
• Again, the substance we call coal is a mixture that
varies depending to its source, but the combustion
generally involves hydrocarbon molecules, and the
oxidation of those carbons through reaction with oxygen
gas.
 Addition Reactions
• Alkenes are valued mainly for their ability to participate
in addition reactions, in which substituent groups join to
hydrocarbon molecules at points of unsaturation – for
this type of molecule, the double bonds.
• In these reactions one of the bonds in the double bond is
broken. Each of the carbon atoms in the bond can then
attach another atom or group while remaining joined to
each other by a single bond.
 Hydrogenation
• The simplest addition reaction.
• The hydrogen gas reacts at a carbon-to-carbon double or
triple bond or a carbon-to-oxygen double bond to add
hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms.
• In the laboratory this reaction can be facilitated with
hydrogen (H2) in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel
(Ni) or platinum (Pt).
 Hydrogenation
• In one important application of this chemistry,
hydrogenation is used to convert unsaturated vegetable
oils to saturated fats.
• Hydrogenated fats, or partially-hydrogenated fats often
appear on nutrition labels for processed foods such as
crackers or chips.
 Hydrogenation
• Hydrogenating foods in this way has several benefits: it
removes a functional group on the fats that could react
by oxidation to make products with off flavors.
• It also raises the melting points of the fats, changing the
texture in ways that might be pleasing to consumers.
• It allows for higher temperature cooking for baked
products, which can increase browning and improve
flavor.
 Hydrogenation
• But there are also big drawbacks to chemical
hydrogenation of fats in foods.
• During the process, cis double bonds can convert to the
trans configuration during the reaction.
• Trans alkenes in fat molecules are associated with
negative effects on cardia health.
• Since consumers have largely rejected trans fat due to
this, companies have shifted most of their hydrogenation
to enzyme-catalyzed processes which yield only cis
isomers.
 Condensation Reactions
• Is a reaction in which two molecules combine to form a
single molecule.
• A small molecule, often water, is usually removed during
a condensation reaction.
• Amino acids are important biological molecules that have
amine functional group on one end of the molecule and a
carboxylic acid functional group on the other end.
• When two amino acids combine in a condensation
reaction, a covalent bond forms between the amine
nitrogen of one amino acid and the carboxyl carbon of
the second amino acid. Water molecule is removed.
 Condensation Reactions

• Amino acids join together to form a molecule called a

dipeptide. The –OH from the carboxyl group of one amino
acid combine with a hydrogen atom from the amine
group of the other amino group to produce water.
 Saponification
• Describes the alkaline hydrolysis reaction of an ester.
• The term saponification originally described the
hydrolysis of long-chain esters called fatty acid esters to
produce soap molecules, which are the salts of fatty
acids.
• One soap molecule is sodium stearate, formed from the
hydrolysis of ethyl stearate.
 Hydrolysis
• Is the reverse of condensation.
• “Hydro” indicates that water is involved and “lysis”
means to break apart.
• In hydrolysis reaction, water is added and the molecule
breaks apart