Design of Machine Elements

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Design of Machine Elements

Introduction
• What is DME: Design – Machine - Elements
• Why do you do design? What do you gain from design? https://youtu.be/sPfJQmpg5zk
• Objectives of design
• Functionality, usability, reliability, cost, safety, size, aesthetics…
• Hallmark products in recent history:
• http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/28/tech/best-design-100-years-zaccai/index.html
• http://startupguide.com/world/the-40-greatest-innovations-of-all-time/
• Mechanical design
• Objective: Avoid failure (safety), functionality, manufacturability, cost, weight, reliability
• Steps involved
• Tools used
• Design constraints and considerations
• Industry standards/ International standards
• Preferred numbers
• Examples of specific design practices using in industries
• Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA)
• Design for Six Sigma: DMAIC and DMADOV (Self-study)
• Pre-requisites needed for this course
• Engineering mechanics
• Strength of materials
Design of Machine Elements 2
Design process
Steps Tools
Market survey, professional societies, Internet,
University, libraries
Cause-effect diagram, Pareto chart, Box-plot
Brainstorming, literature, benchmarking, TRIZ
CAE tools, numerical tools, statistical tools,

optimization tools
Validation with experiments, pilot version

validation
Marketing tools like advertisements, promotions.

Etc..
Design in Mechanical Industry
Energy/ force transmitted and external forces
Design
considerations Dead weight. inertial forces, frictional forces
to avoid failure Loading cycle and expected life
Geometry, stress concentration
Materials properties
Mode of failure: Yielding (Ductile) and fracture (Brittle)
Other effects: Thermal, chemical, environmental
AGMA, AA
Standardisation Industry specific standards
ASME, ASTM
SAE
Preferred numbers
International/ regional standards ISI, ISO
British Standards Institution, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
Metric, British standards

Theories of Failure
• Failure – any change in a machine part which makes it unable to perform its intended
function.
• Why these theories? Failure conditions in simple test -> Failure conditions in actual
component
Ductile materials: Exhibit substantial plastic deformation or yield (> 5% strain) before
failure. Attributed to the movement (or slip) of dislocations in the material over slip
planes. Examples: Most metals, especially the ones with FCC crystal structure.

Theories of failure – Static loading
Ductile Maximum shear stress theory (Tresca theory)
materials
Distortion energy (von Mises yeild criteria)
Ductile Coulomb-Mohr theory
Brittle Maximum normal stress theory

materials
Brittle Coulomb-Mohr theory
Modified Mohr theory
Nomenclature
Allowable stress 𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝐹𝑂𝑆 (𝑛) = =
Maximum stress in the component 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑛
Maximum shear stress theory (Tresca theory)
• Statement: Failure when the maximum shear stress at a point
reaches the maximum shear stress at yielding during a uniaxial
tensile test.
Failure =>  max   yeild , during uniaxial tension
General scenario: If σ1, σ2 and σ3 are the principal stresses such that σ1> σ2> σ3
For a uniaxial tension test, max.
 max 
1   3  shear stress during yielding
1 Sy
2  yeild  
 1   3   S y
2 2

Maximum shear stress theory (Tresca theory)
With Factor of Safety, n
Sy
 1   3  
n
Plane stress scenarios: 3  0  1 (  A )   2 (  B )
1)  A   B  0
 A  Sy
2)  A  0   B
 A  B  Sy
3) 0   A   B
 B  S y
Distortion energy theory (von Mises theory)
• Statement: Failure when the distortion strain energy density (Strain
energy per unit volume), reaches the distortion strain energy density
at yield during a uniaxial tensile test of the specimen.
Failure => ud ,max  ud , during uniaxial tension
 avg   1   2   3

u  uv  u d
u   1 1   2 2   3 3 
1
(1   ) 2
2 ud  Sy  

1
2E

 12   2 2   3 2  2 ( 1 2   2 3   3 1 ) 3E
1/ 2
 ( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   1 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2 
uv 
3
2 2E
 
 av av   3(1  2 )  av 2 
 2


 Sy
(1  2 )
  1   2   3 2 Von Mises stress, σ’
6E
(1   )  ( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   1 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2  Von Mises stress for all components of stress
u d  u  uv   
3E  2   (   )  (   )  (   )
2
 2 2 1/ 2
 '  1 2 2 1 3 1
 3(     )
2
xy
2
yz
2
zx
 2 


Ductile Coulomb – Mohr theory
• Statement: Failure occurs when the state of the component lies
outside the failure line predicted by the Coulomb-Mohr theory
Mohr’s theory Coulomb-Mohr theory
1 3
 1
S yt S yc
Ductile Coulomb – Mohr theory
A
Case 1 : σA ≥ σB ≥ 0 1
S yt
A B
Case 2 : σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB  1
S yt S yc
B
Case 3 : 0 ≥ σA ≥ σB  1
S yc
Brittle - Maximum Normal stress theory
• Statement: Failure when the maximum one of the principal
stress reaches the strength (ultimate stress).
Failure =>  1  Sut Or  3   Suc
For a plane stress scenario
Case 1 : σA ≥ σB ≥ 0  A  Sut
A B A B
Case 2 : σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB  A  Sut if   B   Suc if
Sut

Suc
Sut Suc
Case 3 : 0 ≥ σA ≥ σB  B   Suc

Brittle Coulomb – Mohr theory
Coulomb-Mohr theory
A
Case 1 : σA ≥ σB ≥ 0 1
S ut
Case 2 : σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB A B
 1
S ut S uc
1 3
B  1
Case 3 : 0 ≥ σA ≥ σB  1
Su t Su c
S uc

Modified Mohr’s theory
Case 1 : σA ≥ σB ≥ 0  A  Sut
Case 2 : σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB  A  Sut if  A   B
( Suc  Sut ) A  B
  1 if  A   B
Sut Suc Suc
Case 3 : 0 ≥ σA ≥ σB  B   Suc
1 3
 1
Su t Su c
Example problem
A hot-rolled steel has a yield strength of Syt= Syc=700 MPa and a true
strain at fracture of εf =0.55 Estimate the factor of safety for the following
principal stress states using all the applicable theories.
a) 490, 490, 0 MPa

b) 210, 490, 0 MPa
c) 0, 490, -210 MPa
d) 0, -210, -490 MPa
e) 210, 210, 210 MPa

Fatigue Failure
• Fatigue failure occurs under repetitive or fluctuating loading conditions. Occurs at a
stress levels which are much lower than stresses that cause static failure. The
life (often referred to as the Number of cycles to failure becomes a critical parameter
in the design. The cracks initiating the fatigue failure usually begin at a stress raiser.)
• Loads alternate between a clear maximum and a minimum (or) are totally random
• Frequency DOES NOT matter
• It does not matter if there is a period of quiescence unless there is corrosion.
Presence of corrosion can cause cracks to grow even under static loading conditions.
Effects of corrosion are enhanced under loads.

Fatigue failure
 max  min  max  min
m  a 
2 2
 min a
R  A 
 max m
σa = Alternating Component
σm = Mean Component
R = Stress Ratio
A = Amplitude Ratio
SN curve
Fatigue Test Rig SN Curve for Steel and Al materials
• Tests are done for fully reversed conditions Endurance Limit / Fatigue Limits
• Endurance limit (Se) is the stress below which any number of
• Most data available from ROTATING BEAM test by R. R. cycles will NOT fail the specimen. The term is used only for
Moore. those materials where a clear knee will occur on the SN curve
• Alternating component of stress is plotted against the
number of cycles to failure. • For STEEL, take Se ≈ 0.5Sut
• For aluminium, take Sf Fatigue Strength to be stress at
Sf = 5×108 cycles
SN curve summary
• X-axis has Cycles to Failure while Y axis has alternating component of stress
• Usually X and Y Axes is in a log scale. So actually log10S is plotted vs. log10N. For metals (especially
steels) this log-log plot can be approximated to be straight lines .
• For steels the stress to cause failure at 1000 cycles is ≈ 0.9Sut in bending. If axial loads are applied
the value is 0.75Sut .
• Designing for 106 cycles for steel usually means you are designing for infinite life.
• For Steels (Clear Knee is present) and this defines the Endurance limit (Se).
• Designing for 106 cycles for steel usually means you are designing for infinite life.
• For metals (Like Al) No clear Knee is present. The term “Fatigue limit” is used instead of
“Endurance limit”. Stress at 5×108 cycles is the Fatigue limit (Sf )
Endurance/Fatigue limits Values

Corrections to the Fatigue Strengths
Endurance limit obtained Endurance limit for the
Correction factors
from controlled tests component
Se’ Se
Se  CloadCsizeCsurf CtempCreliabSe'
S f  CloadCsizeCsurf CtempCreliabS f '
Loading Effects
For bending : Cload  1 For axial loading : Cload  0.75
For torsional: Cload  0.577

Correction Parameters for Fatigue Failures
Size Effects
For ferrous (steels) and circular specimen only for bending and For non-ferrous and non-circular
torsion load
Equivalent diameter is calculated based on
For d ≤ 0.3 in:
Csize  1
Volume that has more than 95% of the
max. stress in the component = Volume
that has more than 95% of the max. stress
For ≤ 0.3 in d ≤ 10 in : in the rotating beam specimen
0.097
Csize  0.869d
If d is larger,
Csize  0.6
For axial loading
Csize  1 Design of Machine Elements 25

Size Effects

Surface Effects
Csurf  ASut 
b

Temperature Effects
ST
Ctemp 
S RT

Reliability factor

Analysis for fluctuating load
• Yield line
  
a  S y 1  m 
 Sy 
 
• Modified Goodman line
 m 
a  Se 
1  S 

 ut 
• Soderberg line
  
 a  S e 1  m 
 Sy 
• Gerber parabola
 m 
2

a  Se 1  
S 


  ut  
 
• Gough ellipse
2 2
a  m 

 S 
  
S 
 1
 e   ut 
Safe region – General practice
 m 
Goodman line  a 
 S e 1  

 Sut 
  
Yield line  a  S y 1  m 
 Sy 
 
Safe region.

FOS: Case 1: σa constant and σm varies
    , 
 ,   
S 1  a 
S 1  a  y Sy
ut Se  
  LS  
LS   N  
N   f
f LQ ,
LQ , m
m

FOS: Case 2: σm constant and σa varies
 ,   , 
   
S 1  m  S 1  m 
e S ut y Sy
   
N 
LS
   N 
LS
  
f f
LQ , LQ ,
a a

Fatigue Failures : Stress Concentration
• A NOTCH can be a hole, a groove, a fillet, an abrupt change in
cross section or any disruption to the smooth contours of a part.
• The design stress is actually higher that the nominal stress due
to the presence of notches by a factor Kt
• Design stress (with notch) = Kt * nominal stress (w/o notch)
• Effect of notch is not very much pronounced in case of fatigue
• Hence Kf (< Kt) is used
• Kf = Endurance (fatigue) strength without the notch /
Endurance (fatigue) strength with the notch

Notch Sensitivity Factor (q)
K f 1 q
1 Where,
q
Kt 1 a a = Neuber’s constant
1
r r = notch radius

Neuber’s Constant for Steel & Al

Notch Sensitivity for Steels

Notch Sensitivity for HT-Al

Notch Sensitivity for Annealed Al

Static Stress Concentration

Example problem
• An aluminium rod of OD 50mm and ID 30mm is subjected to sinusoidally varying
load F, between 1500 N and -800 lb. The length of the rod is 150mm. The arm length
as shown is 200mm. A finite life design is sought at 6×107 cycles. Notch radius at the
wall is 6mm and stress concentration factors are for bending Kt =1.7, and for shear,
Kts = 1.35 Take Sy = 320 MPa and Sut=470 MPa for Al material. Determine the
factors of safety a) assuming σa is constant b) assuming σb is constant.

Design of Shafts and shaft components
• Shafts Introduction
– Shaft materials
– Shaft layout
– Elements of shafts
– Shaft stresses
• Design of Shafts
– General method for shaft design
– Torque is constant and bending fully reversed: ASME
– Mean moment and Mean Torque
• Other Considerations
– Yielding at first cycle
– Deflection
– Twisting
– Frequency
• Keys and Key ways
– Key material and geometry
– Woodruff key
• Stresses in Keys
– Stress Concentration in Keys

Shaft materials
• Material properties must be such that the deflection must be small. So
generally a high Young’s Modulus material is preferred. Steel is often a
good choice.
• Low carbon steels - ANSI 1020 - 1050 [High strength and usually high E
so small deflection]
• Alloy steels for higher strength purposes - ANSI 1340-50, 3140-50,
4140, 4340, 5140 and 8650
• Stainless steel – For corrosive environments
• Carburized grades - ANSI 1020, 4320, 4820 and 8620 (If the shaft is to
be used as Journal)

Shaft layout

Elements on Shafts
• Bearings: Rolling element and Journal bearings
• Steps on shafts to accommodate elements such as bearings, sprockets,
gears and pulleys.
• Keys, snap rings or cross-pins to secure elements on to the shaft to
transmit the torque or to prevent things from moving axially
• Stress Raiser:
• Grooves for snap rings, holes for keys and cross-pins Cause Stress
Concentrations. While designing, we must consider these aspects.

Stresses in shafts
Three types of stresses :
(1) Normal stresses from bending
(2) Shear Stresses from bending
(3) Shear stresses from Torsion
(4) Axial stresses due to axial loads.
• Since the shafts have high length to diameter ratio, the shear stresses
from bending is negligible when compared to shear stresses from torsion

Shaft design considerations
The shaft length should be as short as possible
Stress The shaft arrangement should be simply supported beam rather than cantilever beam
A hollow shaft better stiffness/mass ratio and higher natural frequency than solid shaft
Keep stress raisers away from large bending moment regions and to minimise their effects with providing generous radii and reliefs
Deflection at gears should NOT exceed 0.005in (0.127mm) and relative slope between the gear axes should LESS than 0.03º
Deflection
If plain (sleeve) bearings used, the shaft deflection across the bearing length should be LESS than the oil film thickness
If non-self-aligning rolling element bearings are used, the shaft slope should be LESS than 0.04º
The first natural frequency of the shaft should be at least three times the highest forcing frequency expected in service.
Natural
frequency

Stresses in shaft
Stress Alternating component (σa) Mean component (σm)
Normal stresses from bending 𝑀𝑎 𝑐 𝑀𝑚 𝑐

σ𝑎 = 𝐾𝑓 σ𝑚 = 𝐾𝑓
𝐼 𝐼
Shear Stresses from bending 𝐹𝑎 Ac 𝐹𝑚 Ac
τ𝑎 = 𝐾𝑓𝑠 τ𝑚 = 𝐾𝑓𝑠
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏
Shear stresses from Torsion 𝑇𝑎 𝑐 𝑇𝑚 𝑐
τ𝑎 = 𝐾𝑓𝑠 τ𝑚 = 𝐾𝑓𝑠
𝐽 𝐽
Axial stresses due to axial loads 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑚
σ𝑎 = 𝐾𝑓 σ𝑚 = 𝐾𝑓
𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑠
Combine stresses using MDE theory K = stress concentration factor

Von Mises stress M = Bending moment
T = Torque
σ′𝑚 = (σ2𝑚 + 3τ2𝑚 ) F = Shear stress
σ′𝑎 = (σ2𝑎 + 3τ2𝑎 )
N = Axial force
=

Fatigue failure theories for shaft
• DE – Soderberg line • DE Gerber parabola 2
 'a  'm  'a   'm 
 1 
 S 
 1
Se Sy Se  ut 
1/ 3
 

 1
 
4( K f M a ) 2  3( K fsTa ) 2 
1/ 2

 s 
d 
16 n e
   
2 1/ 2 
  
 s
1
4 (K f M m ) 2
 3( K T
fs m )  


  y 
• DE – Goodman • ASME method

 'a  'm
2
  'm 
2
 1   'a 
    1
Se S ut  S   S 
 e   y 
1/ 3 1/ 3
 
 1
   
1/ 2
 4( K f M a ) 2  3( K fsTa ) 2
1/ 2
  K f Ma 2 K fsTa 2 
   4( )  3( )  
16n  se 
d  16n
d 
 se se  
   1/ 2    

1

 s 4( K f M m )  3( K fsTm )
  2 2
 
    4( K f M m ) 2  3( K fsTm ) 2  
  ut    sy sy  
   

Deflection of shafts
• Shafts as Beams
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑀
• =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼
– Where, I is function of dimensions of the shaft

𝑇𝐿
• Shafts as Torsion Bars, the shaft deflection is 𝜃 = 𝐺𝐽
𝑇 𝐺𝐽
• Torsional spring constant, 𝐾𝑡 = 𝜃 = 𝐿
• In stepped shaft, for each diameter section consider as spring.
• Each spring connected in series, since deflection added throughout the length so that to keep Torque is
constant.
• The total effective deflection of the stepped shaft,
𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
• 𝜃 = 𝜃1 +𝜃2 +𝜃3 +𝜃4 = 𝐺 + 𝐽2 + 𝐽3 + 𝐽4
𝐽1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1
• =𝑘 +𝑘 +𝑘 +𝑘
𝐾𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡4

Keys and keyways
• ASME defines it as a demountable machinery part which when assembled into
key seats provides a positive means of transmitting torque between the shaft
and the hub.
• Key materials are in general steel: Like
plain carbon steel can be in generally
used
• Other materials can be used and it
depends on the environment. Alloy
steels
Woodruff key
Tapered Key
Keyway designs

Design considerations
• Widths can never be larger than its nominal dimension and this
can result in backlash, especially when torque changes sign.
• When torque changes sign, any clearance between key and

keyway will subjected to impact and high stresses.
• A setscrew in the hub, placed at 90º from the key, can both hold
the hub axially and stabilise against backlash.
• Key length should be less than 1.5 times the shaft diameter to
avoid excessive twisting with shaft. It is a good idea to start of
with 0.5 in

Taper and Woodruff keys
Taper keys
• Width is same as that of a parallel key
• The Taper and the gib head height are defined in standards
• Self locking and prevent axial motion of the gears or pulleys
Woodruff keys
• Smaller shafts
• Self-aligning, so are preferred for tapered shafts
• Deep Semi-circular shape weakens the shaft when compared to parallel
of tapered keyways

Stresses in keys
Shear stresses Bearing stresses
𝐹 𝐹
𝜎=
𝜏= 𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐴𝑠
For Square key
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑤 ∗ 𝐿 𝐻
𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ∗𝐿
If Torque is constant; 2
0.5 ∗ 𝑆𝑦
𝐹𝑜𝑆 =
𝜏 • F is always the maximum force whether time
varying or not.
If the Torque is time varying them • While calculating bearing or crushing stresses
compute the mean and alternating von- treat as static loading
Mises stress and then use the • Find the factor of safety by comparing the
maximum bearing stress to the material yield
modified-Goodman diagram strength in compression

Stress concentration due to keyways
• Sharp corners, r < 0.02in
• Stress concentration factors for end-milled key ways
under torsion and shear

Design of Machine Elements

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design of Machine Elements

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

Design of Machine Elements

Cause-effect diagram, Pareto chart, Box-plot

Brainstorming, literature, benchmarking, TRIZ

CAE tools, numerical tools, statistical tools,

Validation with experiments, pilot version

Marketing tools like advertisements, promotions.

International/ regional standards ISI, ISO

British Standards Institution, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

Metric, British standards

Design of Machine Elements 4

Design of Machine Elements 5

Brittle Maximum normal stress theory

Allowable stress 𝑦𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Failure =>  max   yeild , during uniaxial tension

Design of Machine Elements 8

Design of Machine Elements 10

Design of Machine Elements 11

Design of Machine Elements 12

Failure =>  1  Sut Or  3   Suc

For a plane stress scenario

Design of Machine Elements 15

Design of Machine Elements 16

a) 490, 490, 0 MPa

Design of Machine Elements 18

Design of Machine Elements 19

Design of Machine Elements 23

For torsional: Cload  0.577

Csize  1 Design of Machine Elements 25

Design of Machine Elements 26

Design of Machine Elements 27

Design of Machine Elements 28

Design of Machine Elements 29

Design of Machine Elements 31

Design of Machine Elements 32

Design of Machine Elements 33

Design of Machine Elements 34

Design of Machine Elements 35

Design of Machine Elements 36

Design of Machine Elements 37

Design of Machine Elements 38

Design of Machine Elements 39

Design of Machine Elements 40

Design of Machine Elements 41

Design of Machine Elements 42

Design of Machine Elements 43

Design of Machine Elements 44

Design of Machine Elements 45

Design of Machine Elements 46

Design of Machine Elements 47

Normal stresses from bending 𝑀𝑎 𝑐 𝑀𝑚 𝑐

Combine stresses using MDE theory K = stress concentration factor

Design of Machine Elements 48

• DE – Goodman • ASME method

Design of Machine Elements 49

– Where, I is function of dimensions of the shaft

Design of Machine Elements 50

Design of Machine Elements 52

• When torque changes sign, any clearance between key and

Design of Machine Elements 53

Design of Machine Elements 54

Design of Machine Elements 55

Design of Machine Elements 56