1

STEELMAKING
 A modern steel melting shop has three broad groups of facilities i.e. Primary Steelmaking,
2 Secondary Steelmaking and Casting of Liquid Steel
 Primary steelmaking is predominantly carried out in top-blown Basic Oxygen Furnaces
(BOF)
 The other two types of furnaces that are also used are the Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
(BOS) and the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
 Primary steelmaking is a process of oxidation.
 The principal oxidising agent is gaseous oxygen along with iron oxide (added as iron ore).
 The extent of refining in oxygen steelmaking processes is substantial since the principal
metallic feed is blast furnace hot metal containing high percentages of carbon, silicon,
phosphorus and manganese.
 In EAF steelmaking, the extent of refining is far less since a large proportion of the metallic
feed is in form of steel scrap containing low levels of impurities.
 The oxidation reactions are exothermic and constitute the source of heat in BOF and BOS
3 processes, leading to an increase in the bath temperature to 1600-1650°C at the end of
refining, from the initial temperature of 1250-1300°C. On the other hand, in EAF
steelmaking the major heat source is electrical power.
 Oxidation of Si, Fe, Mn, P (and sometimes small amounts of Ti) leads to the formation of
SiO2, FeO, MnO, P2O5 (and TiO2). These oxides combine with the fluxing agents added
(principally lime, sometimes OTHER AGENTS ARE ADDED SUCH AS fluorspar, ilmenite,
dolomite, e.t.c) to form a basic molten slag, which helps in refining. Carbon is oxidised in
the form of gaseous carbon monoxide.
4
BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE /PROCESS
(BOF)(BOP)
INTRODUCTION
 The Basic Oxygen Steelmaking process differs from the EAF in that it is
autogenous, or self-sufficient in energy.
 The primary raw materials for the BOP are 70-80% liquid hot metal from the
blast furnace and the balance is steel scrap.
 Oxygen (>99.5% pure) is "blown" into the BOF at supersonic velocities. It
oxidizes the carbon and silicon contained in the hot metal liberating great
quantities of heat which melts the scrap. There are lesser energy
contributions from the oxidation of iron, manganese, and phosphorus. The
post- combustion of carbon monoxide as it exits the vessel also transmits
heat back to the bath.
 5
 The product of the BOS is molten steel with a specified chemical analysis at 2900°F-
3000°F. From here it may undergo further refining in a secondary refining process or be
sent directly to the continuous caster where it is solidified into semi-finished shapes:
blooms, billets, or slabs.
 Basic refers to the magnesia (MgO) refractory lining which wears through contact with
hot, basic slags. These slags are required to remove phosphorus and sulphur from the
molten charge. BOF sizes are typically around 250 tons, and tap-to-tap times are about 40
minutes, of which 50% is "blowing time".
RAW MATERIALS
6
i) HOT METAL
 Hot metal is liquid iron from the blast furnace saturated with up to 4.3% carbon and
containing 1% or less silicon, Si. It is transported to the BOF shop either in torpedo cars or
ladles.
 The hot metal chemistry depends on how the blast furnace is operated and what burden
(iron-bearing) materials are charged to it.
 The trend today is to run at high productivity with low slag volumes and fuel rates, leading
to lower silicon and higher sulphur levels in the hot metal.
 -The sulphur level from the blast furnace can be 0.05% but an efficient hot metal
desulphurizing facility ahead of the BOF will reduce this to below 0.01%.
 The most common desulphurizing reagents, lime, calcium carbide and magnesium - used
alone or in combination - are injected into the hot metal through a lance. The sulphur
containing compounds report to the slag; however, unless the sulphur-rich slag is skimmed
before the hot metal is poured into the BOF, the sulphur actually charged will be well
above the level expected from the metal analysis.
 7
ii) SCRAP
 In autogenous BOP operation, scrap is by far the largest heat sink. At 20 - 25% of the
charge it is one of the most important and costly components of the charge.
 Steel scrap is available in many forms.
 Scrap also comes in many sizes, varying chemical analyses and a variety of prices. All of
which makes the purchase and melting of scrap a very complex issue.
 Very large pieces of scrap can be difficult to melt and may damage the vessel when
charged. Some scrap may contain oil or surface oxidation. Obsolete scrap may contain a
variety of other objects which could be hazardous or explosive. Obviously the chemical
analysis of obsolete scrap is imprecise.
iii) FLUXES
8
 Fluxes serve two important purposes. First they combine with SiO2 which is oxidized from
the hot metal to form a "basic" slag that is fluid at steelmaking temperatures. This slag
absorbs and retains sulphur and phosphorus from the hot metal.
 Lime (95+% CaO) and dolomite (58%CaO, 39% MgO) are the two primary fluxes. They are
obtained by calcining the carbonate minerals, generally offsite in rotary kilns. Calcining
CaCO3 and MgCO3 liberates CO2 leaving CaO or MgO. Two types, "soft" and "hard"
burned lime ?, are available. Soft burned fluxes form slag more quickly than hard-burned,
and in the short blowing cycle, this is critical for effective sulphur and phosphorus removal.
The amount of lime charged depends on the Si content of the hot metal.
 In BOP steelmaking a high CaO/SiO2 ratio in the slag is desirable, e.g. 3. A rule of thumb is
6 X the weight of Si charged. The MgO addition is designed to be about 8 to 10% of the
final slag weight. This saturates the slag with MgO, thus reducing chemical erosion of the
MgO vessel lining.
iv) COOLANTS
9
 Limestone, scrap, and sponge iron are all potential coolants that can be added to a heat
that has been overblown and is excessively hot. The economics and handling facilities
dictate the selection at each shop.
v) ALLOYS
 Bulk alloys are charged from overhead bins into the ladle. The common alloys are
ferromanganese (80%Mn, 6%C, balance Fe), silicomanganese (66%Mn, 16%Si, 2%C,
balance Fe), and ferrosilicon (75% Si, balance Fe). Aluminium can be added as shapes
and/or injected as rod. Sulphur, carbon, calcium, and special elements like boron and
titanium are fed at the ladle furnace as powders sheathed in a mild steel casing about
1/2 inch in diameter.
vi) REFRACTORIES
10
 The basis for most refractory bricks for oxygen steelmaking vessels is magnesia, MgO,
which can be obtained from minerals or seawater.
 Carbon is added as pitch (tar) or graphite.
 The magnesia lime type refractories used in lining oxygen steelmaking vessels are selected
mainly for their compatibility with the highly basic finishing slags required to remove and
retain phosphorus in solution.
 During refining, the refractories are exposed to a variety of slag conditions ranging from 1
to 4 basicity as silicon is oxidizes from the bath and combines with lime. The iron oxide,
FeO, content of the bath increases with blowing time especially as the carbon in the steel
falls below 0.2 % and Fe is oxidized.
 Although all refractory materials are dissolved by FeO, MgO forms a solid solution with
FeO, meaning they coexist as solids within a certain temperature range.
 The high concentrations of FeO formed late in the blow, however, will oxidize the carbon
in the brick.
 Today's working lining refractories are primarily resin-bonded magnesia-carbon bricks
11 made with high quality sintered magnesite and high purity flake graphite.
 Resin-bonded brick are unfired and contain 5% to 25% high purity flake graphite and one
or more powdered metals.
 These bricks require a simple curing step at 350 to 400°F to "thermoset" the resin that
makes them very strong and therefore easily handled during installation. Further
refinements include using prefused grains in the mix.
 Small additions of metal additives (Si, Al, and Mg) protect the graphite from oxidation
because they are preferentially oxidized. Metallic carbides, nitrides, and magnesium-
aluminate spinel form in service at the hot face of the brick filling voids, and adding
strength and resistance to slag attack.
 The rate of solution of a refractory by the slag is dependent on its properties. These
12 properties are directly related to the purity and crystal sizes of the starting ingredients as
well as the manufacturing process.
 Additions of up to 15% high purity graphite to MgO-carbon refractories provide increased
corrosion resistance. Beyond 15% this trend is reversed due to the lower density of the
brick.
 Ultimately, the cost per ton of steel for brick and gunning repair materials, coupled with
the need for vessel availability, dictate the choice of lining.
 The penetration of slag and metal between the refractory grains, the mechanical erosion
by liquid movement, and chemical attack by slags all contribute to loss of lining material.
Over the years, there have been numerous operating developments designed to
counteract this lining wear.
OPERATION
13
14

 Once the hot metal temperature and chemical analysis of the blast furnace hot metal
are known, a computer charge model determines the optimum proportions of scrap and
hot metal, flux additions, lance height and oxygen blowing time.
 A "heat" begins when the BOP vessel is tilted about 45 degrees towards the charging aisle
and scrap charge (about 25 to 30% of the heat weight) is dumped from a charging box
into the mouth of the cylindrical BOF.
 The hot metal is immediately poured directly onto the scrap from a transfer ladle. Fumes
and kish (graphite flakes from the carbon saturated hot metal) are emitted from the
vessel's mouth and collected by the pollution control system.
 Charging takes a couple of minutes, Then the vessel is rotated back to the vertical
position and lime/dolomite fluxes are dropped onto the charge from overhead bins while
the lance is lowered to a few feet above the bottom of the vessel.
 The lance is water-cooled with a multi-hole copper tip. Through this lance, oxygen of
greater than 99.5% purity is blown into the mix. If the oxygen is lower in purity, nitrogen
levels at tap become unacceptable.
15
 As blowing begins, an ear-piercing shriek is heard. This is soon muffled as silicon from the
16 hot metal is oxidized forming silica, SiO2, which reacts with the basic fluxes to form a gassy
molten slag that envelops the lance.
 The gas is primarily carbon monoxide (CO) from the carbon in the hot metal. The rate of
gas evolution is many times the volume of the vessel and it is common to see slag
slopping over the lip of the vessel, especially if the slag is too viscous.
 Blowing continues for a predetermined time based on the metallic charge chemistry and
the melt specification. This is typically 15 to 20 minutes, and the lance is generally pre-
programmed to move to different heights during the blowing period.
 The lance is then raised so that the vessel can be turned down towards the charging aisle
for sampling and temperature tests. Static charge models however do not ensure
consistent turndown at the specified carbon and temperature because the hot metal
analysis and metallic charge weights are not known precisely. Furthermore, below 0.2% C,
the highly exothermic oxidation of iron takes place to a variable degree along with
decarburization. The "drop" in the flame at the mouth of the vessel signals low carbon, but
temperature at turndown can be off by +/- 100°F.
 Once the heat is ready for tapping and the preheated ladle is positioned in the ladle car
17 under the furnace, the vessel is tilted towards the tapping aisle, and steel emerges from
the tap hole in the upper "cone" section of the vessel.
 The tap hole is generally plugged with material that prevents slag entering the ladle as
the vessel turns down.
 Steel burns through the plug immediately. To minimize slag carryover into the ladle at the
end of tapping, various "slag stoppers" have been designed. These work in conjunction
with melter's eyeballs, which remain the dominant control device. Slag in the ladle results
in phosphorus reversion, retarded desulphurization, and possibly "dirty steel". Ladle
additives are available to reduce the iron oxide level in the slag but nothing can be done
to alter the phosphorus.
 - After tapping steel into the ladle, and turning the vessel upside down and tapping the
18 remaining slag into the "slag pot", the vessel is returned to the upright position. In many
shops residual slag is blown with nitrogen to coat the barrel and trunnion areas of the
vessel. This process is known as "slag splashing".
 Near the end of a campaign, gunning with refractory materials in high wear areas may
also be necessary. Once vessel maintenance is complete the vessel is ready to receive
the next charge.

BASIC CHEMISTRY
 - What are the reactions that take place during the steelmaking process?
 Source: http://www.steel.org/making-steel/how-its-made/processes/processes-info/the-
basic-oxygen-steelmaking-process.aspx
19 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE STEELMAKING
 The electric arc furnace operates as a batch melting process producing batches of
molten steel known "heats". The electric arc furnace operating cycle is called the tap-to-
tap cycle and is made up of the following operations:
 1. Furnace charging
 2. Melting
 3. Refining
 4. De-slagging
 5. Tapping
 6. Furnace turn-around
 - Modern operations aim for a tap-to-tap time of less than 60 minutes. Some twin shell
furnace operations are achieving tap-to-tap times of 35 to 40 minutes.
20
 21
1. Furnace Charging
 The first step in the production of any heat is to select the grade of steel to be made.
 The scrap yard operator will prepare buckets of scrap according to the needs of the
melter. Preparation of the charge bucket is an important operation, not only to ensure
proper melt-in chemistry but also to ensure good melting conditions.
 The scrap must be layered in the bucket according to size and density to promote the
rapid formation of a liquid pool of steel in the hearth while providing protection for the
sidewalls and roof from electric arc radiation.
 Other considerations include minimization of scrap cave-ins which can break electrodes
and ensuring that large heavy pieces of scrap do not lie directly in front of burner ports
which would result in blow-back of the flame onto the water cooled panels.
 The charge can include lime and carbon or these can be injected into the furnace during
the heat. Many operations add some lime and carbon in the scrap bucket and
supplement this with injection.
22

 The first step in any tap-to-tap cycle is "charging" the scrap.

 Roof and electrodes are raised and are swung to the side of the furnace to allow the
scrap charging crane to move a full bucket of scrap into place over the furnace.
 The bucket bottom is usually a clam shell design - i.e. the bucket opens up by retracting
two segments on the bottom of the bucket. The scrap falls into the furnace and the scrap
crane removes the scrap bucket.
 The roof and electrodes swing back into place over the furnace. The roof is lowered and
then the electrodes are lowered to strike an arc on the scrap. This commences the
melting portion of the cycle.
23
2. Melting
 The melting period is the heart of EAF operations. Melting is accomplished by supplying
energy to the furnace interior. This energy can be electrical or chemical. Electrical energy
is supplied via the graphite electrodes and is usually the largest contributor in melting
operations.
 Initially, an intermediate voltage tap is selected until the electrodes bore into the scrap.
Usually, light scrap is placed on top of the charge to accelerate bore-in. Approximately
15 % of the scrap is melted during the initial bore-in period.
 After a few minutes, the electrodes will have penetrated the scrap sufficiently so that a
long arc (high voltage) tap can be used without fear of radiation damage to the roof.
 The long arc maximizes the transfer of power to the scrap and a liquid pool of metal will
form in the furnace hearth, at the start of melting the arc is erratic and unstable. Wide
swings in current are observed accompanied by rapid movement of the electrodes.
 As the furnace atmosphere heats up the arc stabilizes and once the molten pool is
formed, the arc becomes quite stable and the average power input increases.
24

 Chemical energy can be supplied via several sources including oxy-fuel burners and
oxygen lances. Oxy-fuel burners burn natural gas using oxygen or a blend of oxygen and
air.
 Heat is transferred to the scrap by flame radiation and convection by the hot products of
combustion. Heat is transferred within the scrap by conduction. Large pieces of scrap
take longer to melt into the bath than smaller pieces.
 In some operations, oxygen is injected via a consumable pipe lance to "cut" the scrap.
The oxygen reacts with the hot scrap and burns iron to produce intense heat for cutting
the scrap. Once a molten pool of steel is generated in the furnace, oxygen can be
lanced directly into the bath. This oxygen will react with several components in the bath
including, alluminium, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, carbon and iron. All of these
reactions are exothermic (i.e. they generate heat) and supply additional energy to aid in
the melting of the scrap.
 The metallic oxides that are formed will end up in the slag. The reaction of oxygen with
carbon in the bath produces carbon monoxide, which either burns in the furnace if there
is sufficient oxygen, and/or is exhausted through the direct evacuation system where it is
burned and conveyed to the pollution control system.
25 -

 Once enough scrap has been melted to accommodate the second charge, the
charging process is repeated.
 When the final scrap charge is melted, the furnace sidewalls are exposed to intense
radiation from the arc. As a result, the voltage must be reduced. Alternatively, creation of
a foamy slag will allow the arc to be buried and will protect the furnace shell. In addition,
a greater amount of energy will be retained in the slag and is transferred to the bath
resulting in greater energy efficiency.
 Once the final scrap charge is fully melted, flat bath conditions are reached. At this point,
a bath temperature and sample will be taken.
 The analysis of the bath chemistry will allow the melter to determine the amount of
oxygen to be blown during refining. At this point, the melter can also start to arrange for
the bulk tap alloy additions to be made. These quantities are finalized after the refining
period.
26

3. Refining
 In modern EAF operations, especially those operating with a "hot heel" of molten steel and
slag retained from the prior heat, oxygen may be blown into the bath throughout most of
the heat. As a result, some of the melting and refining operations occur simultaneously.
 Phosphorus and sulphur occur normally in the furnace charge in higher concentrations
than are generally permitted in steel and must be removed. Unfortunately the conditions
favourable for removing phosphorus are the opposite of those promoting the removal of
sulphur?
27
 Therefore once these materials are pushed into the slag phase they may revert back into
the steel. Phosphorus retention in the slag is a function of the bath temperature, the slag
basicity and FeO levels in the slag.
 At higher temperature or low FeO levels, the phosphorus will revert from the slag back into
the bath. Phosphorus removal is usually carried out as early as possible in the heat.
 “Hot heel” practice is very beneficial for phosphorus removal because oxygen can be
lanced into the bath while its temperature is quite low. Early in the heat the slag will
contain high FeO levels carried over from the previous heat thus aiding in phosphorus
removal.
 High slag basicity (i.e. high lime content) is also beneficial for phosphorus removal but
care must be taken not to saturate the slag with lime. This will lead to an increase in slag
viscosity, which will make the slag less effective. Sometimes fluorspar is added to help
fluidize the slag.
 Stirring the bath with inert gas is also beneficial because it renews the slag/metal interface
thus improving the reaction kinetics.
28
 In general, if low phosphorus levels are a requirement for a particular steel grade, the
scrap is selected to give a low level at melt-in. The partition of phosphorus in the slag to
phosphorus in the bath ranges from 5 to 15. Usually the phosphorus is reduced by 20 to 50
% in the EAF.
 Sulphur is removed mainly as a sulphide dissolved in the slag. The sulphur partition
between the slag and metal is dependent on slag chemistry and is favoured at low steel
oxidation levels.
 Removal of sulphur in the EAF is difficult especially given modern practices where the
oxidation level of the bath is quite high. Generally the partition ratio is between 3 and 5 for
EAF operations.
 Most operations find it more effective to carry out desulfurization during the reducing
phase of steelmaking. This means that desulfurization is performed during tapping (where
a calcium aluminate slag is built) and during ladle furnace operations. For reducing
conditions where the bath has a much lower oxygen activity, distribution ratios for sulphur
of between 20 and 100 can be achieved.
 - Control of the metallic constituents in the bath is important as it determines the
29 properties of the final product. Usually, the melter will aim at lower levels in the bath than
are specified for the final product.
 Oxygen reacts with aluminium, silicon and manganese to form metallic oxides, which are
slag components. These metallics tend to react with oxygen before the carbon. They will
also react with FeO resulting in a recovery of iron units to the bath.
 The reaction of carbon with oxygen in the bath to produce CO is important as it supplies a
less expensive form of energy to the bath, and performs several important refining
reactions.
 In modern EAF operations, the combination of oxygen with carbon can supply between
30 and 40 % of the net heat input to the furnace. Evolution of carbon monoxide is very
important for slag foaming. Coupled with a basic slag, CO bubbles are tapped in the slag
causing it to "foam" and helping to bury the arc.
 This gives greatly improved thermal efficiency and allows the furnace to operate at high
arc voltages even after a flat bath has been achieved. Burying the arc also helps to
prevent nitrogen from being exposed to the arc where it can dissociate and enter into
the steel.
 If the CO is evolved within the steel bath, it helps to strip nitrogen and hydrogen from the
30 steel.
 Nitrogen levels in steel as low as 50 ppm can be achieved in the furnace prior to tap.
Bottom tapping is beneficial for maintaining low nitrogen levels because tapping is fast
and a tight tap stream is maintained. A high oxygen potential in the steel is beneficial for
low nitrogen levels and the heat should be tapped open as opposed to blocking the
heat.
 At 1600°C, the maximum solubility of nitrogen in pure iron is 450 ppm. Typically, the
nitrogen levels in the steel following tapping are 80 - 100 ppm.
 Decarburization is also beneficial for the removal of hydrogen. It has been demonstrated
that decarburizing at a rate of 1 % per hour can lower hydrogen levels in the steel from 8
ppm down to 2 ppm in 10 minutes.
 At the end of refining, a bath temperature measurement and a bath sample are taken. If
the temperature is too low, power may be applied to the bath. This is not a big concern in
modern melt shops where temperature adjustment is carried out in the ladle furnace.
31
4. De-slagging
 De-slagging operations are carried out to remove impurities from the furnace. During
melting and refining operations, some of the undesirable materials within the bath are
oxidized and enter the slag phase.
 It is advantageous to remove as much phosphorus into the slag as early in the heat as
possible (i.e. while the bath temperature is still low). The furnace is tilted backwards and
slag is poured out of the furnace through the slag door. Removal of the slag eliminates
the possibility of phosphorus reversion.
 During slag foaming operations, carbon may be injected into the slag where it will reduce
FeO to metallic iron and in the process produce carbon monoxide which helps foam the
slag.
 If the high phosphorus slag has not been removed prior to this operation, phosphorus
reversion will occur. During slag foaming, slag may overflow the sill level in the EAF and
flow out of the slag door.
5. Tapping
32
 - Once the desired steel composition and temperature are achieved in the furnace, the
tap-hole is opened, the furnace is tilted, and the steel pours into a ladle for transfer to the
next batch operation (usually a ladle furnace or ladle station).
 During the tapping process bulk alloy additions are made based on the bath analysis and
the desired steel grade.
 De-oxidizers may be added to the steel to lower the oxygen content prior to further
processing. This is commonly referred to as "blocking the heat" or "killing the steel".
Common de-oxidizers are alluminium or silicon in the form of ferrosilicon or
silicomanganese.
 Most carbon steel operations aim for minimal slag carry-over. A new slag cover is "built"
during tapping. For ladle furnace operations, a calcium aluminate slag is a good choice
for sulphur control. Slag forming compounds are added in the ladle at tap so that a slag
cover is formed prior to transfer to the ladle furnace. Additional slag materials may be
added at the ladle furnace if the slag cover is insufficient.
6. Furnace Turn-around
33 - Furnace turn-around is the period following completion of tapping until the furnace is

recharged for the next heat.
 During this period, the electrodes and roof are raised and the furnace lining is inspected
for refractory damage. If necessary, repairs are made to the hearth, slag-line, tap-hole
and spout. In the case of a bottom-tapping furnace, the tap hole is filled with sand.
Repairs to the furnace are made using gunned refractories or mud slingers.
 In most modern furnaces, the increased use of water-cooled panels has reduced the
amount of patching or "fettling" required between heats. Many operations now switch out
the furnace bottom on a regular basis (2 to 6 weeks) and perform the hearth
maintenance off-line. This reduces the power-off time for the EAF and maximizes furnace
productivity.
 Furnace turn-around time is generally the largest dead time (i.e. power off) period in the
tap-to-tap cycle. With advances in furnace practices this has been reduced from 20
minutes to less than 5 minutes in some newer operations.
 Electrodes
34
 One of the most important elements in the electric circuit and consumable cost in electric
furnace steelmaking are the electrodes.
 The electrodes deliver the power to the furnace in the form of an electric arc between
the electrode and the furnace charge.
 The arc itself is a plasma of hot, ionic gasses in excess of 6,000°F. Electrodes come in two
forms: amorphous and graphitic carbon, or graphite. Since only graphite electrodes are
used in steelmaking only they will be discussed here.
 Graphite electrodes are composed of a mixture of finely divided, calcined petroleum
coke mixed with about 30% coal tar pitch as a binder, plus proprietary additives unique to
each manufacturer.
35

 Electrode consumption is around 3.5 to 4.5 pounds per ton.

 Most electrode consumption is through oxidation and tip sublimation, with some small
pieces lost around the connecting joint.
 A considerable portion is also lost to mechanical breakage caused by scrap cave-ins in
the furnace or crushing the electrode into the charge.
 Source: Jeremy A. T. Jones, Nupro Corporation