Radiation Detection and

Measurement

By

ANILKUMAR. S

Radiation Safety Systems Division

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

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 How Ionizing Radiation is Detected

• Not detected by any of the human senses

• Require use of Radiation Detectors

can't smell it can't see it

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Radiation require special detectors for sensing. The detectors are materials which
responds to incident radiation by sensible signals.
Radiation Detection is possible only with suitable detectors. Instruments with radiation
detectors are used for providing radiation measurements.

There are two basic types of instruments used for its detection:
• Radiation counting instruments
• Dose measuring instruments (Radiation monitors)

NO YES

Radioactive
Source

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3
 Detectors

Gaseous Scintillation Semiconductor

detectors detectors detectors

Organic Inorganic
scintillation Scintillation
detectors detectors

Proportional
counters Germanium Silicon
detectors detectors
Ionisation GM
chamber Counters

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 Types of Radiation
Ionizing Radiation Non Ionizing Radiation
• Alpha particles ()
Radio waves
• Beta particles () Microwaves
Ultra violet
• Gamma rays () Infra red
• Neutrons Visible

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 Interaction of Radiation with matter

Penetrating Power
++





neutron
Paper sheet
Aluminum Lead Paraffin
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 

Electrostatic
attraction

Free electron

Nucleus

Orbital electrons

IONISATION BY ALPHA PARTICLE

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Beta particle
X Rays

High Z

Interaction of Beta Particle

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 Interaction of Gamma photons with matter

Photoelectric effect Compton Scattering

Pair Production

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 Gas Filled Detectors

The gas filled detectors resemble a cylindrical condenser, with a central anode for
collecting electrons and an outer cathode for collecting positive ions. The ionizing
particle passes through the gas that fills the condenser, creating positive ions and
electrons.

Types of gas filled detectors:

i. Ionisation chamber counters (no secondary ions are produced)
ii. Proportional counters (secondary ions are produced but the number is
proportional with initial energy of the radiation)
iii.Geiger-Müller counters (secondary ions are produced in large numbers and the
number of ions is no longer proportional with radiation energy)
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 Observed Output: Pulse Height

Ions created by incident radiation are collected

Number of ionizations relate to specific ionization value of

radiation

Gas filled detectors operate in either

- Current mode
Output is an average value resulting from detection
of many values

- Pulse mode
One pulse per particle interaction
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 Pulse Height

Recombination Region

Ionization Region



Proportional Region

Voltage
Limited Proportional
Region

Geiger-Mueller Region
Operating Regions of Gas-Filled Detectors

Continuous Discharge Region

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 Advantages/Disadvantages of Gas-Filled Detectors

• Ion Chamber: simple, accurate, wide range,

sensitivity is function of chamber size, no dead time

• Proportional Counter: discriminate hi/lo LET, higher

sensitivity than ion chamber

• GM Tube: cheap, little/no amplification, thin window

for low energy; limited life

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 Issues with Gas Filled Detectors: Dead Time

• Minimum time at which detector recovers enough to start another

avalanche (pulse)
• The dead time may be set by:
– limiting processes in the detector, or
– associated electronics
• “Dead time losses”
– can become severe in high counting rates
– corrections must be made to measurements

A correction to the observed count rate can be calculated as:

Ro
Rc 
Where 1  R0 T
T is the resolving time
R0 is the observed count rate and
RC is the corrected count rate
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 Scintillation detectors
A scintillation detector is a medium that converts
the energy of an ionizing particle/radiation HV bias
into a flash of light. The flashes of light are
viewed electronically by photomultiplier tubes. RL
The output pulses may be amplified, CC
sorted by size, and counted.
signal
Different scintillation materials are used to
detect different types of radiation.
Light tight cover
Photo Multiplier Tube
Liquid scintillation counters have a very good
detection efficiency since the scintillation liquid
and sample are practically mixed together.

Scintillator Na(Tl)
Reflector
Photons
Radiation

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 Important characteristics of Scintillators

• Density and atomic number.

• Light output (wave length + intensity).
• Decay time (duration of the scintillation light pulse).
• Mechanical and optical properties.
• Cost
Consideration for different applications:-

1. The energy of radiation to be measured.

2. The expected count rate.
3. The experimental conditions (Temp, shock, etc).

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 Commonly Used Scintillators

Emission
Density Decay
Material Maximum Refractive Index
[g/cm3] Constant
[nm]
315 0.63 ms
BaF2 4.88 1.54
220 0.8 ns

NaI(Tl) 3.67 415 0.23 ms 1.85

CsI(Tl) 4.51 540 0.68, 3.34 ms 1.80

BGO 7.13 480 0.3 ms 2.15
CdWO4 7.90 470 1.1, 14.5 ms 2.3
Plastics 1.03 375 - 600 1 - 3 ns 1.58
ZnS(Ag) 4.09 450 0.2 ms 2.36

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 Characteristics of Alkali halide Scintillator

With the discovery of NaI(Tl) in 1950 s, began the age of modern scintillation
spectroscopy of –rays. The properties are:
• Large ingots can be grown.
• It has excellent light yield.
• It is hygroscopic.
• It’s response to electrons is close to linear over a wide energy range.
• It is fragile and susceptible to mechanical & thermal shock.
• It’s dominant decay time of scintillation pulse is 230ns.
• It is not suitable to high rate application due to afterglow.
ZnS(Ag):
Has very high scintillation efficiency compared to that of NaI(Tl).
Available only as a polycrystalline powder.
Primarily for α or heavy ion detection.
Opaque to it’s own scintillation and so thickness is restricted up to 25 mg/cm2.

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 Semiconductor Detectors

Germanium Detectors:
For X ray and Gamma ray spectrometry
measurements.

Silicon Detectors:
Low energy X-rays and Alpha spectrometry
measurements

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 Operating Principles of Semiconductor detectors

• Si semiconductor detector is a layer of p-type Si in contact

with n-type Si.
• What happens when this junction is created?
– Electrons from n-type migrate across junction to fill holes in p-
type
– Creates an area around the p-n junction with no excess of
holes or electrons - called a “depletion region”
• Apply (+) voltage to n-type and (-) to p-type:
– Depletion region made thicker
– Called a “reverse bias”

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• Depletion region acts as sensitive volume of the detector
• Passage of ionizing radiation through the region
– Creates holes in valence band
– Electrons in conduction band
– Electrons migrate to positive charge on n side
– Holes migrate to negative voltage on p side
– Creates electrical output
• Requires about 3.6 eV to create an electron hole pair in Si

Depletion region
Has high resistivity
Can be varied by changing bias voltage
Ions produced can be quickly collected
Number of ion pairs collected is proportional to energy
deposited in detector.
Junction can be used as energy spectrometer.

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Germanium Gamma ray detectors

Silicon Alpha detectors

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 Neutron Detectors

Neutron detectors do not detect neutrons but products

of neutron interactions!

Almost all detector types can be made neutron sensitive:

External converter + detector

Converter = detector
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Detection of a neutron is a sequential process:
1. Interaction of the incident neutron: Neutron transport
2. Transport of secondary particles to or within sensing elements
3. Primary ionization by secondary particles
4. Conversion to optical photons, gas amplification- Transport of electrons and
optical photons
5. Conversion to electrical signal

Neutrons can only be detected after conversion to charged particles

Elastic scattering : AX(n,n)AX – recoil nuclei AX

Inelastic scattering: AX (n,n’γ) A*X – recoil nuclei, e-
Radiative capture: AX (n,γ)A+1Y - e-
Neutron emission: AX(n,2n)A-1Y - radioactive daughter
Charged particle emission: AX(n,p)A’Y – Charged particle
Fission : AX +n -> A1X1 + A2X2 + vn - fission fragments
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 Radiation Dose Measurements

To measure radiation dose, the instrument's response must be

proportional to the energy absorbed from radiation.

A "radiation flux" measuring instrument does not necessarily

measure dose. To effectively measure dose, efficiency for different
types of radiation and energy must be taken into account.

Pocket dosimeters, film badges, and personal thermoluminescent

dosimeters are all used to measure personal dose. They are based
on effects of accumulated irradiation in the material inside the
instrument.

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 The relationship of radiation units
Flux (f ) Equivalent dose
No of particles/(m2s) Expresses
Biological damage
To a tissue

Source Sv = Gy * Wr
Activity measured
in Bequerels Effective
dose expresses
Biological
damage to an
Individual

Absorbed dose expresses

energy Absorbed in 1 Kg of
any medium , 1Gy = 1 J/Kg
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 Radiation Monitoring Instruments

Radiation Survey meters are particle counting instruments that have

been calibrated to measure the dose rate.

They are highly specialized and can only be used for the type of
radiation (X-ray, gamma ray or neutrons) for which they have been
calibrated.

These instruments should never be used to measure dose outside the

energy range or type of radiation for which they were calibrated.

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 Thermo luminescence

• (TL) is the ability to convert energy from radiation to

a radiation of a different wavelength, normally in the
visible light range.
• Two categories
– Fluorescence - emission of light during or immediately
after irradiation – not useful for TLD use.
– Phosphorescence - emission of light after the irradiation
period. Delay can be seconds to months.
• TLDs use phosphorescence to detect radiation.

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 TL Process

Conduction Band (unfilled shell)

Electron trap
(metastable state)
-

Phosphor atom
Valence Band (outermost electron shell)

Incident
radiation

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 Conduction Band

Thermoluminescent
photon - Heat Applied

Phosphor atom
Valence Band (outermost electron shell)

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 Output – Glow Curves

• A glow curve is obtained from heating of TLDs

• Light output from TL is not easily interpreted
• Multiple peaks result from electrons in "shallow" traps
• Peak results as traps are emptied.
• Light output drops off as these traps are depleted.
• As Heating continues electrons in deeper traps are released
• Highest peak is typically used to calculate dose
• Area under represents the radiation energy deposited in the TLD

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 TLD Reader

To High DC Amp
Voltage To
ground
PMT

Filter
TL
Heated material
Cup

Power Supply

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 Advantages of TLD

Advantages (as compared to film dosimeter badges)

– Able to measure a greater range of doses

– Doses may be easily obtained
– They can be read on site instead of being sent away for
developing
– Quicker turnaround time for readout
– Reusable
– Small size
– Low cost

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 Radiation Monitors for early warning

Installed

Radiation fields Contamination

Surface Air borne

Dose rate
Dose •Contamination level
•Radio nuclide identification
•EDLS, Area Gamma and •Rad. Nucl. Concentration
neutron Monitors,
• Fence Monitors, •Surface cont. •Air samplers
•Portal Monitors Monitors for , ,  •Continuous
monitors.

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 Radioactivity Measuring Instruments

Gross Alpha/Beta measurements

Gamma ray Spectrometer

with Germanium detector

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Applications of gamma ray spectrometer

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 Radiation Monitoring Instruments

Beta Contamination Monitor

Alscin Monitor

Neutron dose rate monitor Identifinder

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 Radiation Dose rate meters

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 Radiation Dose rate meters

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 Personal Radiation Monitoring Instruments

Direct Reading Dosimeter

Electronic pocket dosimeters

Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLD)

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Whole body monitoring

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Aerial Arial Gamma Spectrometry System (AGSS)

display (computer)

video-
camera GPS

computer

NaI(Tl)-detectors
HPGe-detector

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 Radiation Detector based Instruments

Installed transportable Personal Laboratory

Area Monitors, Survey meters, DRDs, Counting

systems,
Portal surface Personal
monitors, monitors, dosimeters, Whole body
counters,
Limb monitors, Mobile Digital
Liquid
monitors, dosimeters,
Contamination. scintillation
Monitors CARMS, Film badges, systems,
coincident
EDLS etc AGSS etc
counting etc.

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