ME 3507: Theory of Machines

Machines & Mechanical Advantage

Dr. Faraz Junejo

 What is work?

• In science, the word work has a different

meaning than you may be familiar with.

• The scientific definition of work is: using a

force to move an object a distance (when
both the force and the motion of the object
are in the same direction.)
 Work or Not?
• According to the
scientific definition,
what is work and what
is not?
– a teacher lecturing to
her class
– a mouse pushing a piece
of cheese with its nose
across the floor
 Work or Not?
• According to the
scientific definition,
what is work and
what is not?
– a teacher lecturing to
her class
– a mouse pushing a
piece of cheese with
its nose across the
floor
5
 What’s work?

• A scientist delivers a speech to an audience of his

peers.

• A body builder lifts 350 pounds above his head.

• A mother carries her baby from room to room.

• A father pushes a baby in a carriage.

• A woman carries a 20 kg grocery bag to her car?

 What’s work?
• A scientist delivers a speech to an
audience of his peers. No
• A body builder lifts 350 pounds above
his head. Yes
• A mother carries her baby from room to
room. No
• A father pushes a baby in a carriage. Yes
• A woman carries a 20 km grocery bag to
her car? No
 Formula for work

Work = Force x Distance

• The unit of force is newtons

• The unit of distance is meters
• The unit of work is newton-meters
• One newton-meter is equal to one joule
• So, the unit of work is a joule
 W=FD
Work = Force x
Distance

Calculate: If a man
pushes a concrete
block 10 meters with a
force of 20 N, how
much work has he
done?
 W=FD
Work = Force x
Distance
Calculate: If a man
pushes a concrete
block 10 meters
with a force of 20
N, how much work
has he done? 200
joules
(W = 20N x 10m)
 History of Work

Before engines and motors were invented, people had to do

things like lifting or pushing heavy loads by hand. Using an
animal could help, but what they really needed were some
clever ways to either make work easier or faster.
 Simple Machines
Ancient people invented simple machines that
would help them overcome resistive forces and
allow them to do the desired work against those
forces.
 What is an instrument
that makes work easier
called?

a machine
Machine
 Machine (contd.)
 Machines help us do work by redistributing
the work that we put into them.

They can change the direction of force and

they can increase the amount of force that is
applied –they can “multiply” the force
applied.
 Work = force X distance
By looking at the equation: if the amount of work
is the same, what happens when you increase
the distance the force is applied or when you
decrease the distance the force is applied?
Increase –force is smaller
Decrease –force is larger
 Example
Compare the amount of force required to lift a
box straight onto the bed of a truck (1 m) with
the amount of force required to push the same
box up a ramp (3 m). Given Work = 225 J
 Example (contd.)
When lifting a box Using a ramp at an angle
straight up, a mover to lift the box, the
applies a large force mover applies a smaller
over a short distance force over a longer
(1 meter). distance (3 meters).
W=f X d W=f X d
225 J = F X 1 225 J = F X 3
F= 75N
F= 225N
 Simple Machines

• Six types : simple lever, pulley, wheel and

axle, simple inclined plane, wedge, screw

• Divided into two families : the lever

family and the inclined plane family
 Lever Family
• All levers have a rigid arm the turns around a point
called a fulcrum. Force is transferred from one part of
the arm to another.

• The input force can be multiplied or redirected into an

output force.

• Three class of levers based on the location of the

fulcrum and of the input/output forces.
 There are 3 Classes of Levers
• Depends on the location
of 3 items:
1. Fulcrum – fixed point
on a lever  EA 
2. Effort Arm – the part
of the lever that
exerts the effort force.
3. Resistance Arm – the RA
part of the lever that
exerts the resistance
force.
 Three classes of Levers
• First class lever – has a fulcrum located between the
points of input and output force.

Examples include: See-saw, scissors, pliers

 First Class Lever (contd.)
• A first-class lever always changes the direction
of force (I.e. a downward effort force on the
lever results in an upward movement of the
resistance force).
 First Class Lever (contd.)

Fulcrum is between EF (effort) and RF (load)

Effort moves farther than Resistance.
Multiplies EF and changes its direction
 Three classes of Levers (contd.)
• Second class lever – fulcrum is at one end of the arm
and the input force is applied to the other end. The
wheel of a wheelbarrow is a fulcrum.

Examples include: Nutcracker, bottle opener,

wheel barrow
 Second Class Lever (contd.)
A second-class lever does not change the direction
of force. When the fulcrum is located closer to the
load than to the effort force, an increase in force
(mechanical advantage) results.
Second Class Lever (contd.)

RF (load) is between fulcrum and EF

Effort moves farther than Resistance.
Multiplies EF, but does not change its direction
 Three classes of Levers (contd.)
• Third class lever – multiply distance rather than force.
Have the effort placed between the fulcrum and the
load.

Examples include: Hammers, shovels, tongs

 Third Class Lever (contd.)
A third-class lever does not change the direction
of force;
third-class levers always produce a gain in speed
and distance and a corresponding decrease in
force.
Third Class Lever (contd.)

EF is between fulcrum and RF (load)

Does not multiply force
Resistance moves farther than Effort.
Multiplies the distance the effort force travels
 A pulley is a modified lever
• The point in the middle of a pulley is like the fulcrum
of a lever.
 Wheel and Axle
• Another variation of the lever is the simple machine
known as a wheel and axle.

• A wheel and axle consists of two circular pieces of

different sizes attached to each other.

• The larger circular piece is the wheel in the system,

and the smaller circular piece is the axle.
 Wheel and Axle (contd.)
• One of the circular pieces can be considered as the
effort arm of the lever and the second, the resistance
arm, having the same axis.

• The place at which the two are joined is the fulcrum

of the system.

• The effort (applied to the wheel) needed to overcome the

resistance (acting upon the axle) is relatively small, for
example a person can put a little force into turning the handle
i.e. steering wheel to move a heavy car.
 Summary: Wheel and Axle
• Wheel and axle is made of a lever or a pulley
(The wheel) connected to a shaft (the axle).
When the wheel turns, so does the axle.

• Example –screwdriver, steering wheel of a car,

Ferris wheel.
 Example
• You apply a force on the wheel, whose radius R is larger than
the axle. The force is transmitted to the axle, which has radius
r. This resultant force, which is bigger than the force you
applied, does some work for you.

• The force that does the work is bigger by a factor of R/r. For
example, if the wheel is 20 times wider than the axle, the
resultant force will be 20 times bigger. However, the axle turns
through a circular distance of only a twentieth of that through
which you turned the wheel.
 Wheel and axle: Example
The axle is stuck rigidly to a large wheel. Fan blades
are attached to the wheel. When the axel turns, the
fan blades spin.
 Wheel and Axle
• The wheel and axle is a
simple machine consisting
of a large wheel rigidly
secured to a smaller wheel
or shaft, called an axle.

• When either the wheel or

axle turns, the other part
also turns. One full
revolution of either part
causes one full revolution of
the other part.
 Pulleys
• Pulley are wheels and
axles with a groove
around the outside
• A pulley needs a rope,
chain or belt around the
groove to make it do
work.
 Inclined Plane

Multiply and redirect force

• When you push an object up a ramp, you apply a force

to the object in a direction parallel to the ramp. The ramp
then redirects this force to lift the object upward.

• Turns a small input force into a large output force by

spreading work out over a large distance.
 Wedge
• Functions like two inclined planes back to back.
You actually push down on the wedge and it
divides the force out both sides.

• Example – nail or ax blade

 Screw
• An inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder
 Compound Machines
Combines two or more simple machines together
Example – scissors (2 first class levers)
 Mechanical Advantage (MA)
 A machine is designed so that the load
overcome is greater then the effort applied.

This ratio of load to effort is known as he

mechanical advantage of the machine.
 Mechanical Advantage
The number of times a machine multiplies
your effort force.
– Example: If you push on the handle of a car jack
with a force of 30 lbs and the jack lifts a 3000 lb
car, what is the jack’s mechanical advantage?

– The jack multiplies your effort force by 100 times.

Types of mechanical advantage
• IMA – Ideal mechanical • AMA – Actual
advantage. mechanical advantage
• This is the number of • This is the number of
times a machine is times the machine
designed to multiply actually multiplies your
your effort force. effort force.
• It is based on • AMA = resistance
measurements of the force/effort force.
machine. • Includes the effects of
• Ignores friction friction

IMA is always greater than AMA.

 How to calculate MA
• MA = Output force / Input force

• What is the mechanical advantage of a lever

that requires an input force of 20 N and lifts
an object that weighs 60 N?
Calculating mechanical advantage

• Input of 20 N
• Output of 60 N
• MA?

• MA = 60 N / 20 N
• MA = 60 N / 20 N
• MA = 3 or 3:1
 Mechanical Advantage Equation
mechanical advantage = output force = input distance
input force output distance
M.A. = Fo = di
Fi do
mechanical advantage = resistance force = effort distance
effort force resistance distance
M.A. = FR = dE
FE dR
The resistance force can be just the weight of the object you are trying
to move. (Weight is a force of gravity.)
Mechanical advantage has no units.
 M.A. Problem 1

What is the mechanical advantage of

a crowbar that allows you to put 25
Newton of force into lifting a 250
Newton crate?
 M.A. Problem 1
What is the mechanical advantage of a crowbar that
allows you to put 25 newtons of force into lifting a
250 newton crate?

M.A. = Fo M.A. = FR
Fi FE

M.A. = 250 N = 10 M.A. = 250 N = 10

25 N 25 N

How many times does the crowbar multiply the force that was
put into it? (Hint: Look at the answer.)
 M.A. Problem 2

What is the mechanical advantage of

ramp that is 10 m long and 3 m high?
 M.A. Problem 2
What is the mechanical advantage of ramp that is 10
m long and 3 m high?

M.A. = di M.A. = dE
do dR

M.A. = 10 m = 3.3 M.A. = 10 m = 3.3

3m 3m
 M.A. Problem 3

A pulley system has a mechanical

advantage of 10.
a. If a mover uses this pulley to lift a
piano with a weigh of 1450 N a distance
of 4 m, how much force must the mover
use?
b. How far will the mover pull the rope?
 M.A. Problem 3 (contd.)
A pulley system has a mechanical advantage of 10.
a. If a mover uses this pulley to lift a piano with a weigh of
1450 N a distance of 4 m, how much force must the mover
use?
b. How far will the mover pull the rope?

a. M.A. = Fo b. M.A. = di
Fi do
10 = 1450 N 10 = di
Fi 4m
Fi = 1450 N (10)(4m) = di
10
di = 40 m
Fi = 145 N
Are any actual machines
100% efficient?
 Are any actual machines
100% efficient?

There are no machines that are 100%

efficient. Every machine deals with
friction…some more than others. Friction is a
force that opposes motion.
 Ideal Machines

Ideal Machines are 100% efficient.

Ideal Machines do not exist.

What form of energy does
friction produce?
What form of energy does
friction produce?

heat

Why? Friction opposes motion.

 Efficiency
The efficiency of a machine is defined as the
ratio of the output work to the input work.

efficiency = work output x 100%

work input

eff = Wo x 100%
Wi
 Efficiency (contd.)
In an ideal machine…
- work output equals work input.
- the efficiency is 100%.

In real machines…
- the efficiency is less than 100%.
- work output is less than work input.
- loss due to friction and heat.
 Problem 1
A man uses 419 J of work in removing a nail
from a piece of wood with a hammer. The
hammer has a work output of 305 J. What is
the efficiency of the hammer?
 Problem 1: Solution
A man uses 419 J of work in removing a nail from a
piece of wood with a hammer. The hammer has a
work output of 305 J. What is the efficiency of the
hammer?
eff = Wo x 100%
Wi

eff = 305 J x 100

419 J

eff = 72.8 %
 Problem 2
John uses 39 J of energy to
move four boxes with the
handcart. The work output
from the handcart is 32.4 J.
What is the efficiency of the
handcart?
 Problem 2: Solution
John uses 39 J of energy to move four boxes
with the handcart. The work output from the
handcart is 32.4 J. What is the efficiency of
the handcart?
eff = Wo x 100%
Wi

eff = 32.4 J x 100

39 J

eff = 83 %
 Practice Questions
1. Explain who is doing more work and why: a bricklayer carrying
bricks and placing them on the wall of a building being
constructed, or a project supervisor observing and recording the
progress of the workers from an observation booth.

2. How much work is done in pushing an object 7.0 m across a

floor with a force of 50 N and then pushing it back to its original
position? How much power is used if this work is done in 20 sec?

3. Using a single fixed pulley, how heavy a load could you lift?
 Practice Questions (contd.)
4. Give an example of a machine in which friction is both
an advantage and a disadvantage.

5. Why is it not possible to have a machine with 100%

efficiency?

6. What is effort force? What is work input? Explain the

relationship between effort force, effort distance, and
work input.
Practice Questions: Answers
1. Explain who is doing more work and why: a bricklayer carrying bricks
and placing them on the wall of a building being constructed, or a
project supervisor observing and recording the progress of the workers
from an observation booth. Work is defined as a force applied to an
object, moving that object a distance in the direction of the applied
force. The bricklayer is doing more work.

2. How much work is done in pushing an object 7.0 m across a floor with
a force of 50 N and then pushing it back to its original position? How
much power is used if this work is done in 20 sec? Work = 7 m X 50 N X
2 = 700 N-m or J; Power = 700 N-m/20 sec = 35 W

3. Using a single fixed pulley, how heavy a load could you lift?Since a
fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of one, it will only change the
direction of the force applied to it. You would be able to lift a load equal
to your own weight, minus the negative effects of friction.
 Practice Questions: Answers
4. Give an example of a machine in which friction is both an advantage and
a disadvantage. One answer might be the use of a car jack. Advantage of
friction: It allows a car to be raised to a desired height without slipping.
Disadvantage of friction: It reduces efficiency.

5. Why is it not possible to have a machine with 100% efficiency? Friction

lowers the efficiency of a machine. Work output is always less than work
input, so an actual machine cannot be 100% efficient.

6. What is effort force? What is work input? Explain the relationship between
effort force, effort distance, and work input. The effort force is the force
applied to a machine. Work input is the work done on a machine. The
work input of a machine is equal to the effort force times the distance
over which the effort force is exerted.
 Summary: Mechanical advantage
• The factor by which a mechanism/machine
multiplies the force put into it.

• A ratio of output force to input force

• Mechanical advantage of a system is the ratio

of the force that performs the useful work to
the force applied.