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12
Technological concepts
Objectives
By the end of the lesson learners should be able to:
 define terms relating to mechanisms, structures, pneumatics and
hydraulics
 illustrate the graphic the symbol for the following types of motion,
(reciprocating, oscillating, linear and rotary)
 produce articles that involve mechanisms
 identify different types of levers
 draw labelled diagrams to show three classes of levers
 give examples of their application
 calculate the mechanical advantage of the levers
 demonstrate the application of hydraulics and pneumatics
Mechanisms and structures
Mechanisms are still a large part of modern society. Most of the mechanisms
that we use every day are so familiar that we never think twice about them, for
example, door handles, light switches, scissors, etc.

Mechanisms play a vital role in the industry. While many industrial processes
now have electronic control systems, it is still mechanisms that provide the
muscle to do the work. They provide the force to press steel sheets into the
shape of car body panels, to lift large components from place to place and to
force power hacksaws to cut through thick metal bars – the list of jobs is
endless. It is only by using mechanisms that the industry can make products you
use every day.
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Some machines are easy to understand, but many are hidden away from sight
behind glossy panels and covers. In the past, machines were much easier to see,
as with the old steam engine, for example, but as people became more
concerned about safety, it was necessary to fit guards over moving parts. Today,
guards are often replaced by styled covers that make it much harder to see what
is happening, but whether you can see them or not, mechanisms are still playing
a vital part in everyday life.
All mechanisms:
 involve some kind of motion
 involve some kind of force
 make a job easier to do
 need some kind of input to make them work
 produce some kind of output.
Motion
There are four basic kinds of motion.
1. Rotary

Turning in a circle. This is the most common type of movement, for

example, wheels, grinding machine, compact discs, CD-ROMs.
2. Linear
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Movement in a straight line, for example, movement of a tin snip cutting

a straight edge on sheet metal or a lift moving between floors and a train
moving on a railway line.
3. Reciprocating

Backwards and forwards movement in a straight line, for example, the

jigsaw blade or the piston in a car engine.

4. Oscillating

Swinging backwards and forwards in an arc, for example, the pendulum

of a clock, a playground swing or a rocking horse.

Forces
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Forces affect structures in a variety of different ways depending on how they

are applied to the structure. Forces can move a structure slightly or cause
damage by changing the shape of the structure.
Sometimes when forces are applied to a structure, it may be almost impossible
to see changes happening. For example, a bridge will sag slightly when a
vehicle drives over it, but this is not visible to the human eye. Nevertheless, the
vehicle causes the downwards movement of the bridge structure. Loads such as
vehicles on a bridge can be deemed examples of forces acting on the bridge.
Forces can stop an object from moving or they can make it change direction.
When a football is kicked, the forces applied from the player cause the
dimensions of the ball to change on impact. It happens so quickly that it is not
visible.
Forces are measured in newtons and the symbol is the letter ‘N’.
There are several different types of forces that can be applied to and which
affect bodies and structures.
Static forces
When static loads or forces are applied to structures, the structures do not
normally move. Normally the total downwards force comprises the weight of
the structure plus the load it is carrying. The runner below is in his starting
position; his weight is a static or stationary downwards force.

Dynamic forces
When dynamic loads or forces are applied to a structure, the structure does
move and the forces applied can be varied. Dynamic forces are visually more
noticeable and are produced by a variety of means and effects: machines, wind
directions, people, etc. The picture below shows the sprinter after the starting
gun has been fired; he is creating a dynamic impact to gain momentum.
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Bending forces
Structures that carry loads across their length are subject to bending forces. The
weightlifter lifting a weighted bar feels the effect of the downward forces of the
weights and these cause the bar to bend.
A car driving across a bridge will cause bending forces on the structure but
often they are not visible.

Shear forces
Shear forces can be described as tearing or cutting forces affecting structures.
Simple examples are a pair of tin snips used to cut sheet metal or a guillotine.

Torsion forces
Torsion or torque forces have the effect of trying to turn or twist a structure or a
piece of material. A screwdriver being twisted to apply a force to a screw and a
spanner turning a bolt to lock it into place are examples of torque being applied.
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Compression forces
The figure below shows a column with a weight pressing down on it, but the
column does not disappear into the ground because the ground exerts an
upwards reaction force on the column’s base. The downward pressure of the
weight and the upward reaction are external forces trying to squash or shorten
the column. Forces that act like this are called compressive forces and the
column is said to be in compression.
For example, when you sit on a stool in the classroom, your weight acts as a
downward force on the chair. However, there must be an upward force on the
legs of the chair; therefore, the legs are said to be in compression.
The same can be said about the weightlifter’s arms and legs.

Tension force
We have noted that compression occurs when things are being pushed together.
The opposite of compression is ‘tension’ – when a structure is being pulled
apart. In a tug of war, the two sides are pulling the rope in opposite directions.
The forces applied by the teams are called tensile forces and cause the rope to
be in tension. It could also be said that the arms of team members are in tension.
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The wire rope holding the net in volleyball or tennis is also in tension.
Levers
Figure 1(a) shows an early lever. The large boulder is too heavy to move by
pushing it. By using a small boulder as a pivot point and a branch as a lever, it is
possible to amplify the force applied to the large rock. The further from the
pivot the effort is applied, the easier it is to move the large rock or load.

When weight is attached to one side of a lever to assist the user, it is known as a
counterbalance.
A universal systems diagram of a lever is shown below. A lever system changes
an input force and an input motion into an output force and an output motion.

The point that a lever pivots about is called a fulcrum. A line diagram of a lever
is shown below. The input force is called the effort and the input motion is the
distance moved by the effort force. The output force is called the load and the
output motion is the distance moved by the load.
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The lever is a force multiplier and is normally used to get a large output force
from a small input force. However, it can also be used as a distance multiplier,
giving a large output movement for a small input motion; but it cannot do both
at the same time. The diagram below shows a lever system designed to move
heavy machine castings from a lower level to a position of installation.
The castings must be lifted 200 mm.

Force multiplier ratio

In the lever system shown above, the load being lifted is about three times more
than the effort being applied. The load divided by the effort gives a ratio. This
ratio is a force multiplier, or how much more load can be lifted compared to the
effort. The lever, therefore, has a force-multiplier ratio of 2.88 (a ratio that has
no units of value).
Example 1
Find the force-multiplier ratio for the lever.
Force-multiplier ratio = load
effort
= 750 N
260 N
= 2.88
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Movement-multiplier ratio
The force multiplier ratio appears to give the user something for nothing. The
user is only applying about a third of the force to move the load. However, it
can be seen from the diagram that the effort side of the lever has to move much
further than the load side. The ratio of the distance moved by the effort, divided
by the distance moved by the load, is known as the distance-multiplier ratio.
The lever is shown above, therefore, has a distance-multiplier ratio of three
(again a ratio has no units of value).
Example 2
Find the distance-multiplier ratio for the lever shown.
Movement-multiplier ratio = distance moved by the effort
distance moved by the load
= 600 mm
200 mm
=3

Efficiency
Owing to the effects of friction and inertia associated with the movement of any
object, some of the input energy to a machine is converted into heat, and losses
occur. Since losses occur, the energy output of a machine is less than the energy
input; thus, the mechanical efficiency of any machine cannot reach 100 per cent.
The efficiency of a lever system is found by dividing the force ratio by the
movement ratio, with the efficiency given as a percentage. The result of the
above division is multiplied by 100 to give the percentage efficiency value.
Example 1
Find the efficiency of the lever system above is
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The system shown above has an efficiency of nearly 100 per cent. No system
can be 100 per cent efficient; there are always losses. The losses in a lever
system consist of energy lost to friction at the fulcrum of the lever and the
energy lost in the strain as the lever bends slightly. In some cases, a small
amount of energy will also be lost in the form of sound. Remember, no machine
is 100 per cent efficient. Common energy losses include heat energy due to
friction, strain energy and sound energy.
Classes of levers
Levers can be divided into three distinct types (classes) determined by the
position of the load, effort and fulcrum. Applications of their use are found
almost everywhere, from the home or school to equipment on the space shuttle.
The classes of levers are as follows.
Class 1
In class 1 levers the effort is on one side of the fulcrum and the load is on the
opposite side. Class 1 levers are the simplest to understand: the longer the
crowbar the easier it is to prise open the lid.

Example of class one levers is shown above.

Class 2
In class 2 levers the fulcrum is at one end of the lever and the load and the effort
are spaced out on the other end of the bar. The load must be closer to the
fulcrum than the effort. A wheelbarrow is a good example of a class 2 lever.
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The wheel is the fulcrum, the load is in the container area and the effort is
applied to the handles. Similarly, a door has a hinge (fulcrum), the load can be
considered as acting in the door’s centre of gravity and the effort is applied as
far from the hinge as possible.

Examples of class 2 levers is shown above.

Class 3
Class 3 levers are similar to class 2 levers except that now the effort is closer to
the fulcrum than the load. This means that more effort has to be applied to move
the load. This type of lever is used when mechanisms require a large output
movement for a small input movement.
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Examples of class three levers is shown above

Mechanical advantage
There are many different ways of accomplishing the same task. For example,
nails may be pulled out of a piece of wood with machines such as a pair of
pliers or a claw hammer as shown below.

The claw hammer does the job with less effort. The hammer acts as a first-class
lever that converts a small input force into a much larger output force. When a
machine turns a small input force into a larger output force, we say that the
machine gives us a mechanical advantage.
Mechanical advantage (MA) is the ratio of the output force to the input force
(for example, the output force divided by the input force).
Imagine a hammer pulling a nail out of a piece of wood. If the hammer
produces an output force 15 times greater than the force you apply to it (the
input force), then the hammer has a mechanical advantage of 15. Mechanical
advantage has no units; it is simply a comparison or ratio. When the input and
output forces are the same, the mechanical advantage is 1. Machines with a
mechanical advantage greater than 1 generally make tasks easier and faster to
accomplish.
One way of estimating the mechanical advantage of a lever is to compare the
length of the effort arm with the length of the load arm. The formula for
mechanical advantage in this case is
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Example 1: Determine Mechanical Advantage of a Wheelbarrow

The wheelbarrow in Figure 2 has an effort arm 120 cm long and a load arm 40
cm long. What is its mechanical advantage?

Given: effort arm length = 120 cm

load arm length = 40 cm
Required: mechanical advantage (MA)

Analysis: MA = effort arm length

load arm length

Solution: MA = 120 cm
40 cm
MA = 3

It is possible to have a mechanical advantage of less than 1. This happens when

the input force is greater than the output force. You can also estimate the
mechanical advantage of machines by comparing input and output distances.
Using distances, mechanical advantage is equal to the ratio of input distance to
output distance:

Input distance refers to the distance over which the input force is applied; output
distance refers to how far the load moves. For a single pulley shown below, the
input distance and the output distance are the same, so mechanical advantage is
1.
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A single pully has a mechanical advantage of 1.

Example 2. Determine Mechanical Advantage of a Pulley System
To lift a load 5 cm with a pulley system, 15 cm of string had to be pulled. What
is the mechanical advantage?
Given: input distance = 15 cm
output distance = 5 cm
Required: mechanical advantage (MA)
Analysis: MA = input distance
output distance

Solution: MA =15 cm
5 cm
MA = 3

Ideal Mechanical Advantage versus Actual Mechanical Advantage

Examples 1 and 2 describe a form of mechanical advantage called ideal
mechanical advantage. The ideal mechanical advantage is what the mechanical
advantage would be if all of the input force could be converted into an output
force. However, this is never possible in real-world applications. Think back to
the claw hammer. Not all of the effort applied to the hammer will be used in
pulling the nail from the wood. Friction between the wood and the nail will
cause some of the input force to be turned into thermal energy in the wood and
the nail (for example, the wood and nail heat up a little). Also, some of the input
force may be used in causing the wood to dent or in producing sound.
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Actual mechanical advantage is the mechanical advantage that actually

occurs. It is the ideal mechanical advantage minus any force lost to factors such
as internal friction, slippage, and distortion. Actual mechanical advantage can
be calculated by dividing a measured output force by a measured input
force. This formula uses measured forces to calculate mechanical advantage:

Example 3: Determine Actual Mechanical Advantage of a Lever

Imagine that you are lifting a patio

stone using a pry bar as a lever in
the picture. If the input force
applied is measured as 25 N and the
output force is measured as 250 N,
then what is the actual mechanical
advantage?

Given: measured input force = 25 N

measured output force = 250 N
Required: actual mechanical advantage (MA)
Analysis: actual MA = measured output force
measured input force
Solution: actual MA = 250 N
25 N
actual MA = 10

You can also use the actual mechanical advantage equation to determine the
actual mechanical advantage of pulley systems.
Example 4: Determine Actual Mechanical Advantage of a Pulley System
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The pulley system in the picture is being used to

raise a load. The input force on the pulley system is
4 N, and the output force is equal to 12 N. What is
the actual mechanical advantage of the pulley
system?
Given: measured input force = 4 N
measured output force = 12 N
Required: actual mechanical advantage (MA)

Analysis: actual MA = measured output force

measured input force

Solution: actual MA = 12 N
4N
actual MA = 3

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

All machines require some type of power source and a way of transmitting this
power to the point of operation. The three methods of transmitting power are:
 Mechanical
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 Electrical
 Fluid
In this topic, we are going to deal with the third type of power transmission
which is the Fluid Power
Fluid power is the method of using pressurized fluid to transmit energy. Liquid
or Gas is referred to as a fluid. Accordingly, there are two branches of fluid
power; Pneumatics, and Hydraulics.
Hydraulic systems use liquid to transfer force from one point to another.
Pneumatic systems use air to transfer force from one point to another. Air is
 Compressible: (This describes whether it is possible to force an object
into a smaller space than it normally occupies. For example, a sponge is
compressible because it can be squeezed into a smaller size), and liquid is
 Incompressible: (The opposite to compressible. When a “squeezing”
force is applied to an object, it does not change to a smaller size. Liquid,
for example, hydraulic fluid, possesses this physical property).
It is this difference that makes hydraulic and pneumatic systems behave in
different ways.

Hydraulics
Hydraulic systems are commonly used where mechanisms require large forces
and precise control. Examples include vehicle power steering and brakes,
hydraulic jacks and heavy earth moving machines. The liquid is ideal for
transferring a force from the control mechanism to the mechanism doing the
work. For example, transferring force from the brake pedal to the wheel brake
in a car. Because liquid does not compress, it transfers all the force and enables
precise movement.
Basic Principles of Hydraulics
The basic principles of hydraulics are few and simple:
• Liquids have no shape of their own.
• Liquids will NOT compress.
• Liquids transmit applied pressure in all directions.
• Liquids provide a great increase in the workforce.
Uses of hydraulics
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Hydraulics plays an important role in many industries; there are a lot of

hydraulic applications in the manufacturing, transportation, and construction
sectors. Hydraulics systems are used where large, precise forces are required.
Common examples of hydraulic systems include:
1 Vehicle brake hydraulic systems
The function of a vehicle braking system is to stop or slow down a moving
vehicle. When the brake pedal is pressed as illustrated below, the hydraulic
pressure is transmitted to the piston in the brake calliper of the brakes. The
pressure forces the brake pads against the brake rotor, which is rotating with the
wheel. The friction between the brake pad and the rotor causes the wheel to
slow down and then stop.

2 Vehicle power steering

The vehicle power steering system uses hydraulic oil, the hydraulic pump
supplies the oil through the control valves to the power cylinder as shown below
the major advantage of using this system is to turn the vehicle’s wheels with
less effort.
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3 Hydraulic jacks

In a hydraulic jack, a small piston (pumping piston) transmits pressure through

the oil to a large piston (power piston) through a check valve, resulting in the
weight being lifted as shown below.
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Hydraulic System

 Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized

liquid as a fluid for transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an
energy-using point to accomplish useful work. The figure shows a simple circuit
of a hydraulic system with basic components. Hydraulic systems are used for
the transmission of power through the medium of hydraulic oil. The hydraulic
system works on the principle of Pascal’s law which says that “the pressure in a
fluid at rest is transmitted uniformly in all directions”.
The fluid medium used is hydraulic oil, which may be mineral oil or water or
combinations. This area is also known as oil hydraulics. 
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1. The hydraulic actuator

 It is a device used to convert fluid power into mechanical power to do

useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic
cylinder) or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary
motion, respectively. 
 The pressurized hydraulic fluid delivered by the hydraulic pump is
supplied to the actuators, which converts the energy of the fluid into
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used to get the work done.
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS:
1. Linear Actuators (Hydraulic cylinders)
2. Rotary Actuators (Hydraulic motors)
a. Continuous rotary actuators
b. Semi rotary actuators
  Functions Of Actuators:
1) To produce motion in one line
2) To produce continuous rotary motion
3) To produce rotary or oscillatory motion less than 3600
4) To apply a force and clamp the job.

2. The hydraulic Pump 

 It is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to the rest of the hydraulic
circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
 A pump which is the heart of a hydraulic system converts mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. The mechanical energy is delivered to the
pump via a prime mover such as the electric motor. Due to the
mechanical action, the pump creates a partial vacuum at its inlet. This
permits atmospheric pressure to force the fluid through the inlet line and
into the pump. The pump then pushes the fluid into the hydraulic system.

Importance of Pump: 

1. They convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.

2. The Volumetric efficiency of the pump is relatively high
3.They have high-performance characteristics under varying speed and pressure
requirements
4.Pumps used to generate high pressure in the hydraulic system

 3. Valves

  Valves are used to control the direction, pressure, and flow rate of a fluid
flowing through the circuit.
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Motor 1 – Off 2 – Forward 3– Return 3 2 1 Load Direction control valve

Pump Oil tank Filter Actuator Pressure regulator.
 A fluid power system can be broken down into three segments. The
power input segment consisting of the prime mover and the pump. The
control segment consisting of valves that control the direction, pressure,
and flow rate. The power output segment, consisting of the actuators and
the load. This unit is devoted to each of the following categories of
control valves.
1. Directional control valves
2. Pressure control valves
3. Flow control valves
 DCVs control the direction of flow in a circuit, which among other
things; can control the direction of the actuator. PCVs control the
pressure level, which controls the output force of a cylinder or the output
torque of a motor. FCVs control the flow rate of the fluid which controls
the speed of the actuators.

Different types of valves and their functions:

1. Pressure relief valves – The relief valve opens and bypasses fluid when
pressure exceeds its setting. These are used mostly in all circuits.
2. Pressure-Reducing Valve – This type of valve (which is normally open)
is used to maintain reduced pressures in specified locations of hydraulic
systems.
3. Unloading Valves – high-low pump circuits where two pumps move an
actuator at a high speed and low pressure, punching press.
4. Counterbalance valves – They are used to prevent a load from
accelerating uncontrollably. This situation can occur in vertical cylinders
in which the load is a weight. This can damage the load or even the
cylinder itself when the load is stopped quickly at the end of the travel.

4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump. 

5. Oil Tank or Reservoir:

 This is an oil storage tank in which hydraulic oil is stored. The oil passes
through various pipelines and after doing useful work in the actuator; the
oil returns to the oil tank. In regions of low temperature, oil heaters are
attached to air tanks.
 The reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil. 

6.Pipelines: 
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 Pipelines (Fluid Conducting elements): It is the functional connection for

oil flow in the hydraulic system. The efficiency of oil flow is greatly
influenced by the physical characteristics of piping systems.
 There are two pipes:
a) The pipe which carries pressurized oil is called pressure pipelines
b) Pipes that carry low pressurized oil or used oil (are called return
pipelines).
 Hoses, pipes, pipe fitting are the parts of the fluid power pipeline.

7. Filters

 It is used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system

clean and efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
 When hydraulic fluids are contaminated, hydraulic systems may get
damaged and malfunction due to clogging and internal wear. They
require filtration to remove contaminants.
 Filters are classified as
i. Reservoir filters:
ii. Line filters
iii. Off-line filters
iv. Other cleaning equipment
 Functions of Filter:
1) Take care of the cleanliness of the components.
2) Reduce maintenance.
3) To remove silting.
4) To increase the system reliability.
5) To prevent the entrance of solid contaminants into the system.

8. Pressure regulator

 The pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of

pressure in the hydraulic fluid.
 The piping is shown in Fig. is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred
from the storage tank to one side of the piston and returned from the other
side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump that
produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If the fluid pressure
exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns to the reservoir
and remains there until the pressure acquires the required level.

9. Accumulators

 Accumulators are devices that store hydraulic fluid under pressure.

Storing hydraulic fluid under pressure is a way of storing energy for later
 25

use. Perhaps the most common application for an accumulator is

supplementing the pump flow in a hydraulic system in which a high flow
rate is required for a brief period.
 Types of Accumulators;
1. Weight loaded accumulator
2. Spring-loaded accumulator
3. Gas-charged accumulator
4. Piston type
5. Bladder type
6. Diaphragm type

10. Hydraulic Power Pack: 

 The hydraulic power unit (power supply unit) provides the energy
required for the hydraulic installation.
 The main components of power packs are – The reservoir (tank), Drive
(electric motor), Hydraulic pump, Pressure relief valve, filter, and cooler.
 The pump or motor unit may be mounted on the tank or separately packs
are usually available in either horizontal or vertical configurations.  The
basic unit may be piped to the cylinders or actuators through a suitable
control valve. 
 The hydraulic power packs consist of a reservoir/tank that house the
hydraulic fluid, which is the working medium. 

Diagram of the hydraulic power pack

Working of Hydraulic Power Pack: 

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 The working of a power pack commences when the pump is initialized

with the help of an electric motor coupled to it. The oil is pumped from
the reservoir along the suction line through a suction strainer with the
capability to retain the foreign particles up to 149
microns.
 From the suction line, the oil is forced into the pressure line through the
pump at 35 bars. There is provision to measure the pressure, with the help
of a pressure gauge. An isolator is used to measure the pressure
immediately in any line.
 When the set of pressure is reached, the fluid moves to the cylinder
present at the fixture (clamp). The hydraulic energy of the fluid is
converted back to the mechanical energy by the cylinder.
 According to the direction of the energizing of the solenoid valve, the
linear movement of the clamps (clamping and unclamping) is controlled.
When the solenoid valve is energized in reverse, the unclamping of the
workpiece occurs. There is a return line provided so that the used fluid
may be utilized again. Due to the friction losses, the total energy is not
converted into useful work so a part is converted into heat. So, a heat
exchanger is incorporated. The return line filter has a return capacity of
10 microns.

Hydraulic symbols
The way hydraulic components direct and control liquid around a circuit can be
complex. This would cause difficulty for one engineer explaining to another
engineer how the circuit works. A common form of representing components
and circuits is used to more easily explain what is happening. This form of
representation uses common symbols to represent components and how they are
connected to form circuits. The diagram below shows some of the components’
symbols used in hydraulics.
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The symbols don’t show the component construction, or size, however, it is a

standard form that is used by all engineers to represent that specific component.
The simplified and detailed symbols of the hydraulic power pack are shown
below.

Fundamental laws of Hydraulics

All hydraulic systems operate following a defined relationship between area,
force and pressure. Laws have been established to explain the behaviour of
hydraulic systems. Hydraulic systems use the ability of a fluid to distribute an
applied force to the desired location.
Pressure
When a force (F) is applied to the area (A) of an enclosed liquid, a pressure (P)
is produced as shown below.
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Pressure is the distribution of a given force over a certain area. Pressure can be
quoted in a bar, pounds per square inch (PSI) or Pascal (Pa)

Where force is in newtons (N) and the area is in square meters (m2).
1 Pascal (Pa) =1 N/m2.
1 bar = 100,000 Pa= 105 Pa.
10 bars = 1 MPa (mega Pascals)
In hydraulic systems, the engineer often has the force in newtons and the area in
square millimetres.
1 N/mm2 = 1 MPa = 10 bar
If the pressure is calculated using a force in newtons, and area in square
millimetres, the pressure in the bar can be calculated.

Note: To convert from N/mm2 to bar, multiply by 10, and to convert from bar
to N/mm2, divide by 10.
Example 1.
A cylinder is supplied with 100 bar pressures; its effective piston surface is
equal to 700 mm2. Find the maximum force which can be attained.
P= 100 bar = 100/10= 10 N/mm2.
A= 700 mm2.
F= P. A= 10 X 700= 7000 N =7 kN
Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law states that: “The pressure in a confined fluid is transmitted equally
to the whole surface of its container” Accordingly, the pressure at any point in a
body of fluid is the same in any direction as shown below.
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The diagram below shows that, if a downward force is applied to piston A, it

will be transmitted through the system to piston B. According to Pascal’s law,
the pressure at piston A (P1) equals the pressure at piston B (P2)

Fluid pressure is measured in terms of the force exerted per unit area.
 30

The values F1, A2 can be calculated using the following formula:

Example 2.
In the above diagram, find the weight of the car in N, if the area of piston A is
600 mm2, the area of piston B is 10500 mm2, and the force applied on piston A
is 500 N.
Solution:

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM SAFETY

Quick Facts
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 Popular hydraulic systems must store fluid under high pressure.

 Three kinds of hazards exist burns from the hot, high-pressure spray of
fluid; bruises, cuts or abrasions from flailing hydraulic lines and
hydraulic injection of fluid into the skin.
 Safe hydraulic system performance requires general maintenance.
 Proper coupling of high- and low-pressure hydraulic components and
pressure relief valves are important safety measures.

Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic systems are popular on many types of agricultural equipment because
they reduce the need for complex mechanical linkages and allow remote control
of numerous operations. Hydraulic systems are used to lift implements, such as
ploughs; to change the position of implement components, such as a combine
header or bulldozer blade; to operate remote hydraulic motors, and to assist
steering and braking.

To do their work, hydraulic systems must store fluid under high pressure. One
hazard comes from removing or adjusting components without releasing the
pressure. The fluid, under tremendous pressure, is also hot. The worker then is
exposed to three kinds of hazards: burns from a hot, high-pressure fluid; bruises,
cuts or abrasions from flailing hydraulic lines and hydraulic injection of fluid
into the skin.

Many systems store hydraulic energy in accumulators. These accumulators are

designed to store oil under pressure when the hydraulic pump cannot keep up
with demand, when the engine is shut down, or when the hydraulic pump
malfunctions. Even though the pump may be stopped or implement
disconnected, the system is still under pressure. To work on the system safely,
relieve the pressure before the work begins.

Pinhole Leak Injuries

Probably the most common injury
associated with hydraulic systems is
the result of pinhole leaks in hoses.
These leaks are difficult to locate. A
person may notice a damp, oily, dirty
place near a hydraulic line. Not seeing
the leak, the person runs a hand or
finger along the line to find it. When
the pinhole is reached, the fluid easily
can be injected into the skin as if from
a hypodermic syringe.
 32

Immediately after the injection, the person experiences only a slight stinging
sensation and may not think much about it. Several hours later, however, the
wound begins to throb and severe pain begins. By the time a doctor is seen, it is
often too late, and the individual loses a finger or entire arm.

Unfortunately, this kind of accident is not uncommon. To reduce the chances of

this type of injury, run a piece of wood or cardboard along the hose (rather than
fingers) to detect the leak (see Figure 1).

Improper Coupling
Another hazard is the improper coupling of low-and high-pressure hydraulic
components. Do not connect a high-pressure pump to a low-pressure system. A
low-pressure component, hose or fitting should not be incorporated into a high-
pressure system. Component, hose or fitting ruptures are likely to occur.

Pressure relief valves incorporated into the hydraulic system will avoid pressure
build-ups during use. Keep these valves clean and test them periodically to
ensure correct operation.

Maintenance
An improperly maintained hydraulic system can lead to component failures.
Safe hydraulic system performance requires general maintenance.

 Periodically check for oil leaks and worn hoses.

 Keep contaminants from hydraulic oil and replace filters periodically.
 Coat cylinder rods with protective lubricants to avoid rusting.

Tips for Safe Operation

Follow these rules for safe hydraulics operation.

 Always lower the hydraulic working units to the ground before leaving
the machine.
 Park the machinery where children cannot reach it.
 Block up the working units when you must work on the system while
raised; do not rely on the hydraulic lift.
 Never service the hydraulic system while the machine engine is running
unless necessary (bleeding the system).
 Do not remove cylinders until the working units are resting on the ground
or securely on safety stands or blocks; shut off the engine.

When transporting the machine, lock the cylinder stops to hold the working
units solidly in place.
 33

 Before disconnecting oil lines, relieve all hydraulic pressure and

discharge the accumulator (if used).
 Be sure all line connections are tight and lines are not damaged; escaping
oil under pressure is a fire hazard and can cause personal injury.
 Some hydraulic pumps and control valves are heavy. Before removing
them, provide a means of support such as a chain hoist, floor jack or
blocks.
 When washing parts, use a non-volatile cleaning solvent.
 To ensure control of the unit, keep the hydraulics in proper adjustment.

PNEUMATICS
Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behaviour and applications of
compressed air in our daily life in general and manufacturing automation in
particular. Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is abundantly
available and can be exhausted into the atmosphere after completion of the
assigned task.
Safety when working with compressed air
Air is all around us and, in normal circumstances, causes little damage.
Therefore, working with compressed air is largely a matter of common sense.
There are many ways in which air can be used with perfect safety but,
sometimes, it is used in unsafe ways.
It is more difficult to realise the potentially dangerous force of air compressed
for factory use. It can be tempting to use a compressed air line to clear a
machine of swarf or to dust oneself down after a dirty job. But such practices
and, worse still, general horseplay with compressed air, can cause serious
injuries which may even result in death.
The greatest danger in dusting oneself down with compressed air lies in the risk
of accidental injury to the eyes, ears, nostrils and rectum. If the air enters a
scratch or puncture in the skin, however small, it can cause the limb or other
affected part to swell alarmingly with severe pain. If it forces its way into the
bloodstream, it can make its way into the small blood vessels of the brain, burst
some of these and cause death.
If used to dust a worker’s hair, compressed air may enter the body through
minute punctures in the scalp or enter the ears and cause perforation of the
eardrums. Clothing offers no protection.
 34

A pressure strong enough to dust or clean is certainly strong enough to enter the
skin and penetrate the body. Even a low pressure of 70–100 kPa (10–15 psi) has
been known to cause serious injury. It has been estimated that pressure of only
25 kPa (4 psi) would rupture the bowel.
Compressed air must be handled with care. Horseplay with the hose, however
innocently it may begin, may end with disastrous consequences. It may be
amusing to direct a jet of air at a fellow worker – but this has been known to
produce severe internal injury resulting in death. before attempting to perform
any testing or checks on a system or dismantling pneumatic components, you
should ensure that working conditions are safe.
The following rules must be observed;
1. Isolate the compressor from external power supplies.
2. Use the ‘tag system’ to prevent other people from attempting to operate
the compressor. This is most important if you are to leave the compressor
unattended.
3. Provide support for pressure-held loads that could fall when pressure is
removed through disconnection of the working unit.
4. Relieve the system pressure and vent the receiver. It is dangerous to
remove a hose that contains air under pressure. Operate valves each way
after the compressor has been switched off and the system is at rest, to
bleed it of any line pressures.
5. When working with mobile compressors, ensure there is enough space in
the workshop to conduct the maintenance procedure and that the
compressor is positioned on level ground with the parking brake applied.
6. Keep the work area tidy. Use drains trays under compressor equipment
and, if any oil spillage occurs, clean it up immediately.
7. Never service a pneumatic system while the motor, compressor or
actuators are operating – unless necessary.
8. To ensure control of the unit, keep the pneumatics in proper adjustment.
9. When washing parts, use a non-volatile cleaning solvent that is
compatible with the pneumatic system.
10.Be sure all air-line connections are tight and lines are not damaged. Air
escaping under pressure is noisy and can cause personal injury.
Introduction to pneumatics
Compressed air is one of the oldest forms of energy known to man and applied
to enhance his work capability. The true and worldwide introduction of
pneumatics in the industry began when the need for automation and
 35

rationalisation of operational sequences continued to increase. Today, it is not

possible to imagine modern factories being without compressed air.
Compressed air equipment is an everyday feature in almost every factory
because it allows for the operation of many labour-saving devices and
machines.
The following are a few typical examples of equipment that may be operated by
compressed air:
Industrial hand tools Industrial machines (for)
drills assembling
grinders food processing
screwdrivers woodworking
wrenches die casting
polishers transferring (conveyors)
chipping hammers printing
jackhammers spray painting
mining
packaging

Pneumatic machine
A pneumatic system is a fluid power system that uses the energy of a prime
mover (electric or diesel motor) to drive a compressor to produce air at a
pressure higher than atmospheric.
Potential energy is stored within the compressed air, which is confined in the
storage and distribution systems. When the air is used to operate a machine or
tool, it will expand and release its energy. The power obtained from the tool is
related to the pneumatic system’s operating pressure and the air-flow rate.
Air-generation devices are often very expensive and it is important that the
operator, or person in charge of the equipment, can recognise minor faults
before a major breakdown occurs. They should also be able to carry out
preventative maintenance checks on equipment. It may also be necessary for the
operator to carry out minor repairs on pneumatic devices to avoid expensive
parts becoming permanently damaged.
Advantages of pneumatic systems
Pneumatic systems are widely used in different industries for the driving of
automatic machines. Pneumatic systems have a lot of advantages.
 High effectiveness – There is an unlimited supply of air in the
atmosphere to produce compressed air. Also, there is the possibility of
 36

easy storage in large volumes. The use of compressed air is not restricted
by distance, as it can easily be transported through pipes. After use,
compressed air can be released directly into the atmosphere without the
need for processing.
 High durability and reliability – Pneumatic system components are
extremely durable and cannot be damaged easily. Compared to
electromotive components, pneumatic components are more durable and
reliable.
 Simple design – The designs of pneumatic system components are
relatively simple. They are thus more suitable for use in simple automatic
control systems. There is the choice of movements such as linear
movement or angular rotational movement with simple and continuously
variable operational speeds.
 High adaptability to a harsh environment – Compared to the elements
of other systems, compressed air is less affected by high temperature,
dust, and corrosive environment, etc. Hence, they are more suitable for
harsh environment.
 Safety aspects – Pneumatic systems are safer than electromotive systems
because they can work in an inflammable environment without causing
fire or explosion. Apart from that, overloading in the pneumatic system
only leads to sliding or cessation of operation. Unlike components of the
electromotive system, pneumatic system components do not burn or get
overheated when overloaded.
 Easy selection of speed and pressure – The speeds of rectilinear and
oscillating movement of pneumatic systems are easy to adjust and subject
to few limitations. The pressure and the volume of the compressed air can
easily be adjusted by a pressure regulator.
 Environmentally friendly – The operation of pneumatic systems does
not produce pollutants. Pneumatic systems are environmentally clean and
with proper exhaust air treatment can be installed to cleanroom standards.
Therefore, pneumatic systems can work in environments that demand a
high level of cleanliness. One example is the production lines of
integrated circuits.
 Economical – As the pneumatic system components are not expensive,
the costs of pneumatic systems are quite low. Moreover, as pneumatic
systems are very durable, the cost of maintenance is significantly lower
than that of other systems.
Limitations of pneumatic systems
 37

Although pneumatic systems possess a lot of advantages, they are also subject
to several limitations. These limitations are given below.
 Relatively low accuracy – As pneumatic systems are powered by the
force provided by compressed air; their operation is subject to the volume
of the compressed air. As the volume of air may change when
compressed or heated, the supply of air to the system may not be
accurate, causing a decrease in the overall accuracy of the system.
 Low loading – As the cylinders used in pneumatic systems are not very
large, a pneumatic system cannot drive loads that are too heavy.
 The processing required before use – Compressed air must be
processed before use to ensure the absence of water vapour or dust.
Otherwise, the moving parts of the pneumatic components may wear out
quickly due to friction.
 Uneven moving speed – As air can easily be compressed, the moving
speeds of the pistons are relatively uneven.
 Noise – Noise is usually produced when compressed air is released from
the pneumatic components.
Components of pneumatic systems
Pneumatic cylinders, rotary actuators and air motors provide the force and
movement for most pneumatic systems, for holding, moving, forming, and
processing materials. To operate and control these actuators, other pneumatic
components are needed such as air service units for the preparation of the
compressed air and valves for the control of the pressure, flow and direction of
movement of the actuators. A basic pneumatic system consists of the following
two main sections.
 Compressed air production, transportation, and distribution system
 Compressed air consuming system
The main components of the compressed air production, transportation, and
distribution system consisting of an air compressor, electric motor and motor
control centre, pressure switch, check valve, storage tank, pressure gauge, auto
drain, air dryer, filters, air lubricator, pipelines, and different types of valves.
The main components of air consuming system consist of an intake filter,
compressor, air take-off valve, auto drain, air service unit, directional valve,
actuators, and speed controllers. Basic components of the pneumatic system are
shown below
 38

a) Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
b) Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air
compressors are either diesel or electrically operated. Based on the
requirement of compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be
used.
c) Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases.
Therefore, coolers are used to reduce the temperature of compressed air.
d) Dryer: The water vapour or moisture in the air is separated from the air
by using a dryer.
e) Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor
for control of direction flow, pressure etc.
f) Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain the required
movements of mechanical elements of the pneumatic system.
An intake filter also known as an air filter is used to filter out the contaminants
from the air.
Air compressor converts the mechanical energy of an electric or combustion
motor into the potential energy of compressed air. Several types of compressors
are used in compressed air systems. Compressors used for the generation of
compressed air is selected based on desired maximum delivery pressure and the
required flow rate of the air
The types of compressors in the compressed air systems are
 39

(i) piston or reciprocating compressors,

(ii) (ii) rotary compressors,
(iii) (iii) centrifugal compressors, and
(iv) (iv) axial flow compressors.
Reciprocating compressors are
(i) single stage or double stage piston compressor, and
(ii) (ii) diaphragm compressor.
Rotary compressors are
(i) sliding vane compressor, and
(ii) (ii) screw compressor.
Electric motor transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is used to
drive the air compressor.
The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in the air receiver.
The purpose of the air receiver is to smooth the pulsating flow from the
compressor. It also helps the air to cool and condense the moisture present. The
air receiver is to be large enough to hold all the air delivered by the compressor.
The pressure in the receiver is held higher than the system operating pressure to
compensate for pressure loss in the pipes. Also, the large surface area of the
receiver helps in dissipating the heat from the compressed air.
For satisfactory operation of the pneumatic system, the compressed air needs to
be cleaned and dried. Atmospheric air is contaminated with dust, smoke and is
humid. These particles can cause wear of the system components and the
presence of moisture may cause corrosion. Hence it is essential to treat the air to
get rid of these impurities. Further during compression operation, air
temperature increases. Therefore, a cooler is used to reduce the temperature of
the compressed air. The water vapour or moisture in the air is separated from
the air by using a separator or air dryer.
Air drying system can be adsorption type, absorption type, refrigeration type, or
the type that uses semi-permeable membranes. Also, an inline filter is provided
to remove any contaminant particles present. This treatment is called primary
air treatment. In the third stage which is the secondary air treatment process,
further filtering is carried out.
Lubrication of moving parts of cylinder and valves is very essential in the
pneumatic system. For this purpose, compressed air lubricators are used ahead
of pneumatic equipment. The lubricator introduces a fine mist of oil into the
 40

compressed air. This helps in the lubrication of the moving components of the
system to which the compressed air is applied.
Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for control of direction
flow, pressure etc. The main function of the control valve is to maintain
constant downstream pressure in the airline, irrespective of variation of
upstream pressure. Due to the high velocity of the compressed air flow, there is
a flow-dependent pressure drop between the receiver and load (application).
Hence the pressure in the receiver is always kept higher than the system
pressure. At the application site, the pressure is regulated to keep it constant.
There are three ways to control the local pressures which are given below.
 In the first method, load vents the air into the atmosphere continuously.
The pressure regulator restricts the airflow to the load, thus controlling
the air pressure. In this type of pressure regulation, some minimum flow
is required to operate the regulator. If the load is a dead-end type that
draws no air, the pressure in the receiver rises to the manifold pressure.
These types of regulators are called ‘non-relieving regulators’ since the
air must pass through the load.
 In the second type, the load is a dead-end road. However, the regulator
vents the air into the atmosphere to reduce the pressure. This type of
regulator is called a ‘relieving regulator’.
 The third type of regulator has a very large load. Hence its requirement of
air volume is very high and cannot be fulfilled by using a simple
regulator. In such cases, a control loop comprising of the pressure
transducer, controller and vent valve is used. Due to the large load, the
system pressure may rise above its critical value. It is detected by a
transducer. Then the signal is processed by the controller which directs
the valve to be opened to vent out the air. This technique is also used
when it is difficult to mount the pressure regulating valve close to the
point where pressure regulation is needed.
Air cylinders and motors are the actuators that are used to obtain the required
movements of mechanical elements of a pneumatic system. Actuators are output
devices that convert energy from compressed air into the required type of action
or motion. In general, pneumatic systems are used for gripping and/or moving
operations in various industries. These operations are carried out by using
actuators. Actuators can be classified into three types which are
(i) linear actuators which convert pneumatic energy into linear motion,
(ii) rotary actuators which convert pneumatic energy into rotary motion,
and;
 41

(iii) actuators to operate flow control valves- these are used to control the
flow and pressure of fluids such as gases, steam or liquids.
The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is similar.
However, they differ in their operating pressure ranges. The typical pressure of
hydraulic cylinders is about 100 kg/sq mm and that of pneumatic cylinders is
around 10 kg/sq mm.
Application of pneumatic systems
There are several applications for pneumatic systems. Some of them are
pneumatic presses, pneumatic drills, operation of system valves for air, water or
chemicals, unloading of hoppers and bins, machine tools, pneumatic rammers,
lifting and moving of objects, spray painting, holding in jigs and fixtures,
holding for brazing or welding, forming operations, riveting, operation of
process equipment etc.
Units of measurement used in pneumatics
You need to be familiar with certain metric units of measurement to understand
pneumatic principles and what happens in the pneumatic systems you will be
working on. The following are the basic parameters and units of measurement
used in pneumatics and discussed in this resource:
 force – which is measured in Newtons (N)
 area – which is measured in square metres (m2)
 pressure – which is measured in Pascals (Pa)
 flow – which is measured in cubic metres per minute (m3/min)
 time – which is measured in seconds (s)
 volume – which is measured in cubic metres (m3)
 length – which is measured in metres (m)
 velocity – which is measured in metres per second (m/s).
The table below shows equivalent values which are useful to know:
1 megapascal kilopascals (kPa) Pascals (Pa) bar
(MPa) 1000 1 000 000 10

cubic
millilitres
1 cubic metre litres (L) centimetres
(mL)
(m3) (cm3 or cc)
1000 1 000 000 1 000 000
 42

cubic cubic decimetres

millilitres
1 litre (L) centimetres (dm
1000 1000 1

Force
Force is an effort capable of causing a load to move or stopping it from moving.
The unit of measurement is the Newton, a force that can be best appreciated by
placing a mass of one kilogram in your hands, as illustrated below. The
sensation you experience by supporting the weight is caused by a force of
approximately 10 Newtons, which your hands have to provide to prevent the
one-kilogram mass from falling due to gravity (at an acceleration rate of 9.81
metres per second).

Force = mass x acceleration (in this case, acceleration due to gravity)

A force of one Newton is that which, if applied to a mass of one kilogram,
would give it an acceleration rate of one metre per second.
Area
In the context of pneumatics, the area is the surface over which the force is
applied. Its unit of measurement is the square metre. The example below shows
how to calculate the surface area of a pneumatic piston with a diameter of 100
mm (or 0.1 m).
 43

Pressure
 44

Pressure is produced when a force is applied over an area. The unit of

measurement is the Pascal, which is equivalent to the force of one Newton
applied over an area of one square metre.

Example

The pressure applied by the 10-kilogram block on the plate illustrated above
would be calculated as follows:

Note: The force exerted by the mass is found by multiplying the kilogram value
by the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2). We must also convert the block’s
dimensions to metres.
 45

One Pascal is a very small degree of pressure. At sea level, the atmospheric
pressure of 101.3 kPa, or one atmosphere, is acting on your body. Other units of
pressure commonly used are the:
kilopascal – 1 kPa is equal to 1000 Pascals (kilo means ‘× 1000’)
bar – 1 bar is equal to 100 000 Pascals or 100 kPa
megapascal – 1 MPa is equal to 1 000 000 Pascals (mega means ‘×
1 000 000’).
Note: The imperial unit of pressure (pounds per square inch or psi) is also used
in some industries and some of you may be familiar with this. However, you are
encouraged to work in SI (System International) metric units, as this is the
Australian Standard.
To convert psi to kPa, multiply by 6.89476.
For example, 100 psi is equal to 689.476 kPa.
Because fluids have no shape of their own, they will take the shape of the
container and, in a contained fluid, pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions. We can use these principles to transmit power and multiply a force.
 46

Force multiplication
For example, as illustrated above, if a 1000 Newton force is applied to a piston
with a surface area of one square metre, it will produce a pressure of 1000
Pascals, as demonstrated by the following calculation.

Pascal’s laws of fluid pressures state that this same pressure is transmitted to all
points of the container – that is, it acts equally in all directions and at right
angles to any surface in contact with the fluid. Therefore, this pressure is also
applied to the five-square-metre piston, achieving a five-fold multiplication of
the original force, as shown in the calculation below.

The relationships between force, pressure and area can easily be remembered by
placing the parameters in a triangle in various ways, as shown below.
 47

Looking at the triangle above, if we cover up the F, we can see that force =
pressure × area.