MECHANICS OF MACHINES FOR EIE

Mechanics

Mechanics is the science of the equilibrium and motion of bodies subject to forces.
It is the discipline devoted to the study of the equilibrium and motion of bodies
subject to various forces. It also deals with the kind of forces that act on an object
that is not moving.

Machine
A machine can be defined as “an apparatus for applying mechanical power and it
consists of a number of inter-related parts that are appropriately joined together,
and each having a definite function.” For example:

 an engine converts thermal energy into mechanical energy; and,

 A lathe (machine) converts electrical energy into some useful
mechanical work.

Therefore, both (the engine and the lathe) are machines.

A machine is basically an assembly of mechanical linkages. A mechanical

linkage is an assembly of links or systems connected to manage forces and
movement. The movement of a body, or link, is studied using geometry and so
the link is considered to be rigid enough to transmit forces. The connections
between links are called joints. A joint is the connection between two or more
links which allows some motion between the connecting links.

The links are modeled (or designed) to provide:

 ideal movement;
  pure rotation; and,
 sliding, etc.

Mechanical linkages are usually designed to transform a given input force and
movement into a desired output force and movement. The ratio of the output
force to the input force is known as the mechanical advantage of the linkage,
while the ratio of the input speed to the output speed is known as the speed ratio.

The linkages in the machine are used to apply mechanical power resulting in a
definite objective or function. For example, Fig. 1 shows an extended SCISSOR
LIFT. Here, we have linkages that can be used to lift loads when forces are applied
appropriately to the system.
 Fig. 1: Extended SCISSOR LIFT

The simplest mechanical linkage is the LEVER (Fig. 2). A lever is a link that
pivots around a fulcrum attached to a fixed point. As applied force rotates the
lever, points far from the fulcrum have a greater velocity than points near the
fulcrum.
 Fig. 2: The mechanical advantage of a lever

[The subscript r represents the resistance force caused by a load, and the

subscript e represents the effort, or input force, IMA is the Induced Mechanical
Advantage]

A lever is a type of simple machine, which creates a mechanical advantage to

perform tasks by changing the magnitude and/or direction of forces. As already
stated, a lever needs a fulcrum (Fig. 2), which is the central pivot for the system to
manipulate forces. A lever also needs some sort of rigid bar or rod placed in some
position on the fulcrum for the system to be functional.

While levers may change the amount of force that is required to perform a job —
they do not change the work or energy needed. Like all simple machines, people
use the physics of levers to their advantage, but there is a trade-off for using less
force — the force must be applied over a greater distance.

Many everyday tools use levers and fulcrums, such as nail clippers, pliers, scissors,
wheelbarrows, fishing rods, crow bars, and nutcrackers, just to name a few. The
principles behind levers can also be explored by seeing how hard of a push is
needed to open a door at different distances from its hinges.

Because power into the lever equals the power out, a small force applied at a point
far from the fulcrum (with greater velocity) equals a larger force applied at a point
near the fulcrum (with less velocity). The amount by which the applied force is
amplified is called mechanical advantage. This is the law of the lever.

Mechanical advantage, force-amplifying effectiveness of a simple machine, such

as a lever, an inclined plane, a wedge, a wheel and axle, a pulley system, or a
jack-screw. The theoretical (or induced) mechanical advantage of a system is the
ratio of the force that performs the useful work to the force applied, assuming there
is no friction in the system. In practice, the actual mechanical advantage will be
less than the theoretical value by an amount determined by the amount of
friction.

Two levers, 2 and 4, connected by a rod, 3, so that a force applied to one is

transmitted to the second is known as a four-bar linkage (Fig. 3). The levers in the
four-bar linkage are called cranks, and the fulcrums between the links are called
pivots. In fig. 3, link 3, the connecting rod, is also called the coupler. Link 1 in the
assembly is the ground, or frame, on which the cranks are rigidly mounted.
 Fig. 3: Four-bar linkage

Mechanical linkages are important components of machines and tools. Examples

are:

 the four-bar linkage used to amplify force in a bolt cutter;

 the mechanism that provides independent suspension in a motor vehicle;

and,

 the complex linkage systems in robotic arms and walking machines.

The internal combustion engine, Fig. 4(b), uses a slider-crank four-bar linkage,
Fig. 4(a), formed from the piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft. This results in
transformation of power from expanding burning gases (fuel) in the combustion
chamber into rotary power of a shaft. The slider-crank mechanism is a particular
four-bar linkage configuration that converts linear motion to rotational, or
vice versa. Internal combustion engines are a common example of this mechanism,
where combustion in the cylinder (combustion chamber) creates enormous
pressure that drives the piston. This mechanism is composed of three important
parts, namely:

 The crank which is the rotating disc;

 the piston (slider) which slides inside the cylinder (combustion chamber);
and,

 the connecting rod which joins the parts together.

Fig. 4(a): A slider-crank four-bar linkage

 Fig. 4(b): Diagram of a cylinder as found in an overhead cam 4-
stroke petrol engines

 C – crankshaft
 E – exhaust camshaft
 I – inlet camshaft
 P – piston
 R – connecting rod
 S – spark plug
 V – valves red: exhaust, blue: intake.
 W – cooling water jacket
 gray structure – engine block

Relatively simple linkages are often used to perform complicated tasks. Interesting
examples of linkages in use include:

 The windshield wiper (for motor vehicles);

 The bicycle suspension mechanism;

 The leg mechanism in a walking machine; and,

 Hydraulic actuators for heavy equipment.