UNIT III

CAD STANDARDS
Standards for computer graphics :
• CAD Standards are a set of guidelines for the way Computer-aided design
(CAD) drawings should appear, to improve productivity and interchange of
CAD documents between different offices and CAD programs, especially in
architecture and engineering.
• Standards for computer graphics-Need for graphic standards:
• Need for portability of the geometric model among different hardware
platforms
• Exchange drawing database among software packages
• Need for exchanging graphic data between different computer system.
• Need for the requirement of graphic data exchange formats and their
details such as IGES ,DXF,STEP
SOME OF GRAPHIC STANDARDS
• Graphical Kernel System (GKS) :
• GKS is basically a set of procedure which can be called by user programs to
carry out certain generalized functions such as arc,circle,ellipse etc
• It is a standardized system of graphical functions for processing graphical
data to create and process 2D images
• GSK implementations have been made by many hardware manufactures in
many languages
• LAYER MODEL OF GKS
• Features of GKS
• It is an independent device ,it can work with all types of input and output
devices
• All text and annotation can be prepared and stored in natural languages
• Graphic functions are defined for both 2D and 3D
• GKS defines an international coordinate system called normalized device
coordinate system
Classifications of GKS:
• 1. control functions
• 2. Output attributes
• 3. Output primitives
• 4. Segment functions
• 5. Transformations
• 6. Input functions
• 7. Metafile functions
• 8. Inquiry functions
• The Graphical Kernel System (GKS) is a document produced by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) which defines a common
interface to interactive computer graphics for application programs.
• GKS has been designed by a group of experts representing the national
standards institutions of most major industrialized countries
• GKS is a kernel system, and thus does not include an arbitrary collection of
functions to produce histograms or contour plots, etc
• The GKS functions have been defined independently from a specific
programming language, and bindings to individual languages are subject
to separate standards efforts which have been undertaken for all the
major languages
• Open Graphics Library (OpenGL)[ is a cross-language cross
platform application programming interface (API) for
rendering 2D and 3D vector graphics
• The API is typically used to interact with a graphics processing unit (GPU),
to achieve hardware-accelerated rendering
• applications use it extensively in the fields of computer-aided
design (CAD), virtual reality, scientific visualization, information
visualization, flight simulation, and video games.
• OpenGL specifies a set of "commands" or immediately executed functions.
• Each command directs a drawing action or causes special effects.
• A list of these commands can be created for repetitive effects.
• OpenGL is independent of the windowing characteristics of each operating
system, but provides special "glue" routines for each operating system
that enable OpenGL to work in that system's windowing environment.
• OpenGL comes with a large number of built-in capabilities requestable
through the API. These include hidden surface removal, alpha blending
• Design : This API is defined as a set of functions which may be called by
the client program. Although functions are similar to those of C language
but it is language independent.
• Development : It is an evolving API and Khronos Group regularly releases
its new version having some extended feature compare to previous one.
GPU vendors may also provide some additional functionality in the form of
extension.
• Associated Libraries : The earliest version is released with a companion
library called OpenGL utility library. But since OpenGL is quite a complex
process. So in order to make it easier other library such as OpenGL Utility
Toolkit is added which is later superseded by freeglut. Later included
library were GLEE, GLEW and glbinding.
• Implementation : Mesa 3D is an open source implementation of OpenGL.
It can do pure software rendering and it may also use hardware
acceleration on BSD, Linux, and other platforms by taking advantage of
Direct Rendering Infrastructur
• Data exchange standards :
• Data Exchange Standards facilitate the sharing of structured data across
different information systems.
• Data Exchange Standards are optimized to represent CDISC content, and
flexible enough to be used by information systems that haven’t
implemented the Foundational Standards (e.g., legacy data, academic
studies).
• CAD data exchange is a modality of data exchange used to translate data
between different Computer-aided design (CAD authoring systems or
between CAD and other downstream CAx systems.
• transfer of data is necessary so that, for example, one organization can be
developing a CAD model, while another performs analysis work on the
same model; at the same time a third organization is responsible for
manufacturing the product.
• The CAD systems currently available in the market differ not only in their
application aims, user interfaces and performance levels, but also in data
structures and data formats
• therefore accuracy in the data exchange process is of paramount
importance and robust exchange mechanisms are needed.
• The exchange process targets primarily the geometric information of the
CAD data but it can also target other aspects such as metadata,
knowledge, manufacturing information, tolerances and assembly structure
• There are three options available for CAD data exchange: direct model
translation, neutral file exchange and third-party translators
• Although initially targeted for the geometric information (wire
frame, surfaces, solids and drawings) of a product, nowadays there are
other pieces of information that can be retrieved from a CAD file
• Metadata – non-graphical attributes
• Design intent data
• Application data
• The different types of product information targeted by the exchange
process may vary throughout the life cycle of the product.
• Data exchange options:
Direct model translation
• Direct data translators provide a direct solution which entails translating
the data stored in a product database directly from one CAD system
format to another, usually in one step
• There usually exists a neutral database in a direct data translator.
• The structure of the neutral database must be general, governed by the
minimum required definitions of any of the modelling data types, and be
independent of any vendor format
Neutral file exchange:
Neutral file exchange uses an intermediary neutral format to translate data
between CAD systems.
This method starts from a pre-processor embedded in the original CAD
system, which generates the neutral file from the originating CAD format.
• Third-party translators
• Several companies specialize in CAD data translation software that can
read from one CAD system and write the information in another CAD
system format.
• There are a handful of companies that provide low-level software toolkits
to directly read and write the major CAD file formats
• Most CAD developers license these toolkits, to add import and export
capabilities to their products
• There are also a significant number of companies that use the low-level
translation toolkits as the basis for building standalone end-user
translation and validation applications
Data exchange quality:
Data quality can be addressed intrinsically and extrinsically. Intrinsic problems
are those related to the CAD model’s structure before any translation
process begins, while extrinsic problems relate to those issues appearing
during translation.
• the most common CAD data exchange problems via neutral formats are:
• loss of the architectural structure
• change the names of parts with numbers or names assigned to the
directories where they are stored
• loss of bodies from the assemblies
• displace of details of their correct position relative to the original model
• loss of the original color of the parts
• visualization of details of their correct position relative to the original
model
• displaying the construction lines that are hidden in the original product
• modification in the graphic information
• modification on hollow bodies into solid bodies.
 IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)

• IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) was the first specification for
CAD data exchange published in 1980 as a NBS (National Bureau of
Standards) report in USA
• All major CAD vendors support IGES and it is currently by far the most
widespread standard for CAD data exchange
• IGES was originally developed for the exchange of drafting data like 2D/3D
wireframe models, text, dimensioning data, and a limited class of surfaces
• Due to criticism and bad experience with the data transfer using IGES, the
standard has been gradually extended and developed concerning
supported entities, syntax, clarity, and consistency
• IGES specification defines the format of the file, language format, and the
product definition data in these formats
• The product definition includes geometric, topological, and non-geometric
data. The geometry part defines the geometric entities to be used to
define the geometry.
• The topology part defines the entities to describe the relationship
between the geometric entities. The geometric shape of a product is
described using these two parts (i.e. geometry and topology).
• The non-geometric part can be divided into annotation, definition, and
organization. The annotation category consists of dimensions, drafting
notations, text, etc.
• The definition category allows users to define specific properties of
individual or collections of entities. The organization category defines
groupings of geometric, annotation, or property elements
• An IGES file consists of six sections: Flag, Start, Global, Directory Entry,
Parameter Data, and Terminate
• Each entity instance consists of a directory entry and parameter data
entry.
• The size of IGES files and consequently the processing time are practical
problems
• IGES files are composed of fixed format records and each entity has to
have records in both the directory entry section and the parameter data
section with bi-directional pointers.
• IGES is under control of the NCGA (National Computer Graphics
Association) and is part of the U.S. Product Data Association (USPRO) and
the IGES/PDES Organization(IGO).
• The NCGA administers the National IGES User Group (NIUG), which
provides access to information on IGES
Flag section
Used only with the compressedASCII and binary format
• Compressed format contains compressed file by eliminating spaces from
the records
• ASCII format comprises two types : fixed 80-character record length and
compressed format
• Start section
• Provides a human –readable description of the file, such as the sending
system that generated the original data, the pre-processor ,and the
product being described
• Global section
• Included information telling the pre-processor and information needed by
the post –processor to interpret the files
STEP :
• STEP (STandard for the Exchange of Product model data) is a new
International Standard (ISO 10303) for representing and exchanging
product model information
• It includes an object-flavored data specification language, EXPRESS, to
describe the representation of the data
• STEP defines also implementation methods, for instance, a physical
transfer file, and offers different resources, e.g. geometric and topological
representation.
• The goal was to define a standard to cover all aspects of a produc t (i.e.
geometry, topology, tolerances, materials, etc.), during its lifetime
• This kind of attempt was not been made before. STEP is a collection of
standards to represent and exchange product information
• The main parts of STEP are already international standards, while many
parts are still under development
• The objective of STEP is to offer system-independent mechanism to
describe the product information in computer aided systems throughout
its lifetime
• It separates the representation of product information from the
implementation methods
• STEP provides also a basis for archiving product information and a
methodology for the conformance testing of implementations.
• STEP does not only define the geometric shape of a product: it also
includes topology, features, tolerance specifications, material properties,
etc. necessary to completely define a product for the purposes of design,
analysis, manufacture, test, inspection and product support.
• The use of STEP is still very modest but it is growing all the time. The
majority of CAD system vendors has implemented or is implementing STEP
pre- and postprocessors for their CAD systems.
Three layers of STEP:
Application layer –consist of information of various application areas
• Logical layer-provide a consistent , computer-independent description of
the data constructs that contain information to be exchanged
• Physical layer –deals with the data structures and data format for
exchange file itself
• Continuous acquisition and life –cycle support (CALS).:
• It was developed by US department of defense
• It prescribes the formats for storage and exchange of technical data
• Focuses mainly technical publications
• Important CALS standards:
• Standard generalized markup language (SGML) is an important standard
developed ibn 1960s IBM .
• It has the document description language
• Computer graphics metafile (CGM) is next important standard .developed
in 1986 it is used for the vector file format for illustrations and drawings
• CALS is an attempt to integrate text, graphics and image data into
standard document architecture
• CALS has also come into wide use in the commercial computer industry
such as in CAD/CAM applications and in the aerospace industry which
owes a large part of its business to government and military contracts
• Continuous acquisition and life –cycle support (CALS)
• Two types of CALS raster formats as defined by MIL-STD-28002A.
• TYPE I –raster data files contain single monochrome image compressed
using CCITT encoding algorithm
• TYPE II – image file contain one or two monochrome images which are
also stored using CCITT encoding algorithm
• Type I file format consist of the following
• I. Header
• II. Image data
• Type II file format looks similar to the format given below.
• Header
• Document profile
• Presentation styles
• Document layout
• Root layout
• communication standards :
• international committees are developing recommendations or proposals
dealing with the standardization of particular interfaces between software
systems and/or hardware systems.
• On the various computer systems interconnected by a network, different
subsets of a comprehensive graphical system may be installed. It is
important for an application process running on one system to work with
its local graphical subset as well as with remote graphical subsets having
other features.
• The aspect of transfer of graphical information is of prime importance for
the overall performance of the distributed graphical system, especially for
the transport of graphical files.
• Furthermore, this aspect has to be considered carefully if an application
process produces graphical output for a remote graphical device.
• High performance transport requires a most effective coding of graphical
information and an agreement on the functionality of complex graphical
items defined on a high semantic level; in addition, a high performance
transmission facility is needed