A Presentation on

Unit V: CAD Data Exchange

By,

Mr. Ravikant K. Nanwatkar

CAD Data Exchange
• CAD data exchange is a modality of data exchange used to
translate data between different Computer-aided design (CAD)
authoring systems
• Transfer of data is necessary so that, for example, one organization
can be developing a CAD model, while another performs analysis
work on the same model; at the same time a third organization is
responsible for manufacturing the product.
• The exchange process targets primarily the geometric information
of the CAD data but it can also target other aspects such as
metadata (non-graphical attributes), knowledge, manufacturing
information, tolerances and assembly structure.
CAD KERNELS
• A geometric modeling kernel is a 3D modeling component found
in modeling software, such as computer-aided design (CAD).
• Modeling kernels are described in mathematical equations that get
translated into shapes, like the code on a website that allows you
to see actual content.
• Even a simple cylinder, can be represented in at least three
different ways: a NURB surface, a “periodic” surface or a pair of
ruled surfaces that have a pair of common edges. You can imagine
the choices a kernel must makes when calculating and storing
more complex organic shapes.
• Two kernels of the same category can interpret the same command
differently, giving different results. The important thing to know is
that kernels are like skilled workers - they have different
specializations and are capable of performing different tasks. If
you wanted to create a hole in an object and calculate the edges at
both ends the kernel would carry out this task.
• A user might ask a CAD system to punch a hole through an object,
but it is the kernel that intersects the cylindrical surface of the hole
with the existing object to calculate the new edge curves at the top
and bottom of the hole. If the object is an organic shape or the hole
intersects more than a few faces this simple operation can involve
some serious math.
CAD DATA FILE
• DWF file: Design Web Format (DWF) represents 2D/3D drawing
in compressed format for viewing, reviewing or printing design
files. It contains graphics and text as part of design data and
reduces the size of the file due to its compressed format.
• DWG file: Files with DWG extension represent proprietary binary
files used for containing 2D and 3D design data. Like DXF, which
are ASCII files, DWG represent the binary file format for CAD
(Computer Aided Design) drawings. It contains vector image and
metadata for representation of contents of CAD files.
• DXF file: DXF, Drawing Interchange Format, or Drawing
Exchange Format, is a tagged data representation of AutoCAD
drawing file. Each element in the file has a prefix integer number
called a group code. This group code actually represents the
element that follows and indicates the meaning of a data element
for a given object type. DXF makes it possible to represent almost
all user-specified information in a drawing file.
• IFC file: Files with IFC extension refer to Industry Foundation
Classes (IFC) file format that establishes international standards to
import and export building objects and their properties. This file
format provides interoperability between different software
applications. Specifications for this file format are developed and
maintained by building SMART International as its Data Standard.
The ultimate objective of IFC file format is to improve
communication, productivity, delivery time and quality throughout
the life cycle of a building. Due to the established standards for
common objects in the building industry, it reduces the loss of
information during transmission from one application to another.
IFC can hold data for geometry, calculation, quantities, facility
management, pricing etc. for many different professions (architect,
electrical, HVAC, structural, terrain etc.).
• The PLT file format is a vector-based plotter file introduced by
Autodesk, Inc. and contains information for a certain CAD file.
Plotting details require accuracy and precision in production, and
usage of PLT file guarantee this as all images are printed using
lines instead of dots. The format is based on the HPGL file format
which is used for sending information to plotter printers. PLT files
can be viewed with its original applications i.e. Autodesk’s
AutoCAD, but there are other applications as well that can be used
to manipulate these files such as CorelDRAW Graphics Suite. A
number of applications and APIs support conversion of PLT file
format to DXF, PDF, JPEG, TIFF, PNG, BMP, CGM, SVG, PS
and PCL.
• STL File: It abbreviation for stereolithrography, is an
interchangeable file format that represents 3-dimensional
surface geometry. The file format finds its usage in several
fields such as rapid prototyping, 3D printing and computer-
aided manufacturing. It represents a surface as a series of small
triangles, known as facets, where each facet is described by a
perpendicular direction and three points representing the
vertices of the triangle. Resultant data is used by applications
to determine the cross section of the 3D shape to be built by
the fabber. There is no information available in the STL file
format for representation of color, texture or other common
CAD model attributes.
• DGN File:DGN, Design, files are drawings created by and
supported by CAD applications such as MicroStation and
Intergraph Interactive Graphics Design System. It is used for
creating and saving designs for construction projects such as
highways, bridges, and buildings. The format is similar to
Autodesk’s DWG file format and is considered its competitor.
DNG files can either be saved as Intergraph Standard File
Format or V8 DGN. DGN can be converted to several other
formats such as DWG, BMP, JPEG, PDF, GIF and others. It
can be opened with Autodesk AutoCAD, Bentley View and
Bentley Systems Micro Station in addition to other software
applications such as Corel PaintShop Photo Pro and IMSI
TurboCAD Deluxe versions.
DATA INTEROPERABILITY
• It is the ability of a system, software or product to exchange and
make use of information with other systems, software or products
without special effort on the part of the user. For two systems to be
interoperable, they must be able to exchange data and
subsequently present that data such that it can be understood by a
user.
• Open approaches to data interoperability, such as the Experience
API (xAPI), find rapid adoption across governments, militaries,
enterprises and higher education institutions.
• Proprietary formats are vendor-specific. They are used to describe
product data in the majority of authoring tools in the marketplace.
• Open formats, on the other hand, are often developed to
enable interoperability between applications. They provide
definitions which are openly specified and accessible to
third-parties (application vendors and customers), who wish to
make data available from and to their own applications.
Issues in CAD Interoperability:
• The different ways in which CAD systems handled their
parametric features made a multi-CAD strategy.
• The need for feature-based translation has been reduced by the
advent of CAD programs with advanced direct editing capabilities.
• The rise of product and manufacturing information (PMI), and
model-based design (MBD). The rise of product and
manufacturing information (PMI), and model-based design
(MBD).
CAD Data Conversions:
• The CAD Data Conversion offering manages multiple 2D & 3D CAD data
conversion through a combination of automatic conversions, manual re-
mastering, data quality management and quick data re-introduction.
• There are numerous benefits of CAD conversions:
1. Saves time and increases efficiency, Gets higher quality work, Maximizes
precision, Cuts down cost of operations, Helps to meet project deadlines
2. Resource optimization, Saves on hiring skilled manpower, Saves cost on
training, Reduction in overhead costs of hard copy paper management
3. Beneficial in the competitive market
4. Helps you focus on other business issues
5. Gives you higher return on your investment
6. Gets benefits of updated technology and management
7. It prevents legacy data from piling up in unusable formats
8. It automatically keeps a track of the whole legacy data migration project
9. It helps identify and hence rectify poor quality data
10. 2D to 3D CAD Conversion – A 2D drawing can be easily converted to 3D
model
11. It encourages the use of automation processes and subsequently reduces the
scope for manual intervention.
The major challenges of CAD Data conversion are:
• Clarity of CAD data
• Type of data available (physical samples, solid, surfaces)
• Understanding of legacy CAD data processes
• Capability in understand the Legacy data
• Occurrence of discrepancies between CAD systems
• Incompatible design practices across different engineering groups
• Higher cost of standard translation tools
• Longer lead time of conversion process
• Training of new CAD platform to engineers
Best Practices of CAD conversion
• To collaborate and standardize the data resourcefully,
Organizations are in need of CAD data migration from one CAD
to another CAD system. Successful migration of CAD data to
another new CAD system requires careful planning, preparation,
in-depth analysis, logistics and complete understanding of future
requirements.
• If all the techniques are followed carefully, then the CAD
conversion process maximizes returns than ever before. The key
objective of CAD conversion is to focus on significant guidelines
for a practical, resourceful, and effective strategy that helps to
overcome key challenges and meets organization’s business goals.
• The goals of the conversion project should coincide with the
objectives that originally prompted the new software initiative.
The strategy of CAD conversion should be a precise, recognized
component of the overall engineering systems strategy. Thus, a
proper understanding of the organization objectives will drive the
process to ensure more effectiveness and accomplishments.
There are key aspects that are essential and to be considered
while performing CAD conversion from one system to another:
1. Migrate only new products:This means retaining all existing data in the old CAD
systems. This is feasible when changes to old product lines are uncommon or new
products are completely new. It is not a very safe approach since it already has
modeled parts and suitable when the opportunity arises to reprocess earlier designed
parts.
2. Migrate Products on the go as required:This aspect is less strategic than a default
resulting of not taking time to focus on existing business goals. Even though this
method sounds feasible, it is not an effective methodology. It often results
inIneffective use of technical team who should focus on developing new product
rather than lowering component conversion and Product development disruptions
resulting arriving late to market/.
3. Migrate Targeted Product Lines, and Projects:After revising the conversion costs
and the value of existing data, it is lucrative to convert the product lines that give the
best value on the investment. Focusing on long-term benefits usually brings about
constructive results.
4. Migrate a Percentage of the Product Line:This approach targets a certain percentage
of products chosen for their value. It converts a percentage of the product line that
allows one to focus on broader picture. This strategy is an effective approach to get
the maximum out of the conversion process.
5. Migrate based on sales volume of a product:The continuous accumulation of large
legacy data makes difficult to identify which product portfolios can be chosen to
convert. In this scenario, the sales history helps us to determine the right products
that would be a better bargain upon conversion and yield us on the ROI.
DIRECT DATA TRANSLATORS:
• Direct model translation is a CAD data exchange method when
one CAD format is directly translated into another in one step.
Typically, this is done by CAD software which can process and
import files by other CAD systems. The problem with direct
model translation is that only certain translations are available,
they may have certain limitations and all data is stored in
proprietary formats which can become outdated after some time.
Major CAD systems, such as SolidWorks, PTC Creo, Siemens NX
and CATIA can directly read and/or write other CAD formats,
simply by using File Open and File Save As options. This option is
limited by the fact that most CAD formats are proprietary
therefore direct translators are typically unidirectional, partially
functional and not standardized.
• NEED OF NEUTRAL FILE FORMATS
– It is difficult to enforce the use of a common set of CAD/CAM
tools in different companies.
– Because of the lack of any common set of tools, a common
format for neutral file exchange is needed.
– Usage of neutral standard for transferring information
drastically reduces the requirements for translators.
– Thus cost incurred for data translation is reduced.
Neutral file exchange
• Neutral file exchange uses an intermediary neutral format to
translate data between CAD systems. This method starts from a
pre-processor embedded in the original CAD system, which
generates the neutral file from the originating CAD format. The
target CAD system post-processes the neutral file and converts it
into the target native format. Some neutral formats are defined by
standards organizations such as IGES and STEP while others are
proprietary but still widely used and are regarded as quasi industry
standards.
DXF (Drawing Exchange Format):
• Autodesk, the developer of the most well known CAD software
AutoCAD, developed the DXF format to enable data
interoperability between AutoCAD and other programs. Unlike the
DWG format which is proprietary to AutoCAD, DXF is open
source.DXF files are vector graphic files that can store 2D
drawings. They can also contain 3D data. DXF drawings are
dimensionless, so the user needs to know the unit used to create
the drawing.A DXF file can either be in an ASCII or binary
format. You can read ASCII DXF files in any text editor. A DXF
file can consist of these sections: HEADER, CLASSES, TABLES,
BLOCKS, ENTITIES and OBJECTS.
• You can easily share DXF drawings between different software
programs, which helps solve the compatibility issues and facilitate
collaboration. However, just as with any file format, it’s not
flawless.
DXF (Drawing Exchange Format):
Advantages
• Widely compatible, allowing data exchange between different
programs
• DXF files store vector data which can be easily scaled and
manipulated
• Open source and publicly documented
Disadvantages
• Complex design can lead to large size
• DXF files don’t fully support all features of all the compatible
programs
IGES:
• The Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) is a vendor-
neutral file format that allows the digital exchange of information
among computer-aided design (CAD) systems.
• Using IGES, a CAD user can exchange product data models in the
form of circuit diagrams, wireframe, freeform surface or solid
modeling representations.
• Applications supported by IGES include traditional engineering
drawings, models for analysis, and other manufacturing.
• The IGES file has the format of .igs and is based on ASCIIstandard
code. This is the reason the IGES neutral file is readableby all text
editors.
• the IGES neutral fileconsists of 5 sections including Flag
(optional), Start, Global,Directory Entry, Parameter Data and
Terminate
IGES:
Advantages
• Stores drawing information in an ASCII or binary neutral format
which can then be exchanged between various users.
• IGES originally supported drawings and wireframes, and was later
extended to support surfaces and solids.
Disadvantages
• Does not have a formal information model.
• Lack of a formal information model, problems during file
exchanges and manipulations, hard to understand file formats.
• If there is an error in the IGES file, it is very difficult to find the
mistake and correct it.
• Problem of incomplete exchange due to various ‘flavors’ added by
CAD vendors.
• IGES does not support lifecycle information which may be
relevant for engineering applications other than design.
PDES:
• PDES was designed to completely define a product for all applications
over its expected life cycle, including geometry, topology, tolerances,
relationships, attributes, and features necessary to completely define a
part or assembly of parts.
• PDES can be viewed as an expansion of IGES where organizational and
technological data have been added. It is used for exchanging data
between advanced CAD and CAM programs. It describes a complete
product, including the geometric aspects of the images as well as
manufacturing features, material properties and tolerance and finish
specifications.
• It is used to support any industrial application such as mechanical,
electric, plant design, and architecture and engineering construction
andto include all four types of data which is relevant to the entire life-
cycle of a product: design, analysis, manufacturing, quality assurance,
testing, support, etc.PDES is a much more comprehensive and complex
standard than IGES or any other predecessors. The user interface is
not as simple as “put IGES” and “get IGES.”
STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data)
• STEP can be used to exchange data between CAD, computer-aided
manufacturing, computer-aided engineering, product data
management/enterprise data modeling and other CAx systems.
• STEP addresses product data from mechanical and electrical design,
geometric dimensioning and tolerance, analysis and manufacturing, as well
as additional information specific to various industries such as automotive,
aerospace, building construction, ship, oil and gas, process plants and
others.
• Application data according to a given data model can be exchanged either
by a STEP-File, STEP-XML or via shared database access using SDAI.
• it has to target product data which encompass the data relevant to the entire
lifecycle of a product including design, manufacturing, quality assurance,
testing and support.
• in STEP’s data structure application-specific, data should be stored in a
module of the application layer separate from the generic shape
information.
• it has to utilize a formal language to define the data structure.
• Basically, STEP is used to exchange data between CAD, CAM, CAE, other
CAx systems and Product/Engineering Data Management(P/EDM).
STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data)
Advantages
• Allows viewing and modification of geometry using any CAD
tool capable of interpreting STEP geometry and breaks the
dependency between CAD systems and product definition.
• Very useful for grouping mechanical elements in certain view.
• Included in the assembly schema containing all connector entities.
• Easy for derivation of the implicit information contents.
Disadvantages
• High costing and skills are needed to standard exchange.
ACIS:
• The 3D ACIS Modeler (ACIS) is a geometric modeling kernel
developed by Spatial Corporation (formerly Spatial Technology), part of
Dassault Systemes. ACIS is used by many software developers in
industries such as computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM), computer-aided engineering (CAE), architecture,
engineering and construction (AEC), coordinate-measuring machine
(CMM), 3D animation, and shipbuilding.
• ACIS features an open, object-oriented C++ architecture that enables
robust, 3D modeling capabilities. ACIS is used to construct applications
with hybrid modeling features, since it integrates wireframe model,
surface, and solid modeling functionality with both manifold and non-
manifold topology, and a rich set of geometric operations.
• ACIS core functionality can be sub classified into, 3D Modeling (CAD
modeling commands), 3D Model Management (Data saving and mass
property calculations), 3D Model Visualization (advanced features
including mesh generation and graphical applications).Supported File
formatareStandard ACIS Text (SAT), and Standard ACIS Binary (SAB).
Parasolid:
• Parasolid's capabilities include model creation and editing utilities such
as Boolean modeling operators, feature modeling support, advanced
surfacing, thickening and hollowing, blending and filleting and sheet
modeling.
• Parasolid also includes tools for direct model editing, including tapering,
offsetting, geometry replacement and removal of feature details with
automated regeneration of surrounding data.
• Parasolid also provides wide-ranging graphical and rendering support,
including hidden-line, wireframe and drafting, tessellation and model
data inquiries.
• When exported from the parent software package, a Parasolid
commonly has the file extension .x_t. Another format is .x_b, which is
in binary format so it is more machine independent and not subject to
binary-to-text conversion errors.
• Most Parasolid files can communicate and migrate only 3D solids and/or
surface data - Parasolid files currently cannot communicate and migrate
2D data such as lines and arcs. To use Parasolid effectively, users need
to have fundamental knowledge of CAD, computational geometry and
topology.
STL:
• It is a file format native to the stereolithography CAD software
created by 3D Systems. STL has several backronyms such as
"Standard Triangle Language" and "Standard Tessellation
Language".
• it is widely used for rapid prototyping, 3D printing and computer-
aided manufacturing. STL files describe only the surface geometry
of a three-dimensional object without any representation of color,
texture or other common CAD model attributes. The STL format
specifies both ASCII and binary representations.
• An STL file describes a raw, unstructured triangulated surface by
the unitnormal and vertices (ordered by the right-hand rule) of the
triangles using a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.
• To properly form a 3D volume, the surface represented by any
STL files must be closed and connected, where every edge is part
of exactly two triangles, and not self-intersecting.
• It has wide applications in CAD CAM and Rapid prototyping.
Data exchange quality
• Data quality can be addressed intrinsically and extrinsically.
Intrinsic problems are those related to the CAD model’s structure
before any translation process begins, while extrinsic problems
relate to those issues appearing during translation.
• The development of STEP is the best solution to solve the
extrinsic problems, extending its current capabilities to support 2-
D parametric sections, 3-D parametric assemblies, and history-
based modeling.
• Product data quality is a key issue to avoid intrinsic data exchange
problems and simplify the integration of downstream applications
in the design chain.
Data exchange quality
• For example: is the data wireframe, surface, or solid; is the
topology (BREP) information required; must the face and edge
identifications be preserved on subsequent modification; must the
feature information and history be preserved between systems; and
is PMI annotation to be transferred. With product models,
retaining the assembly structure may be required. If drawings need
to be translated, the wireframe geometry is normally not an issue;
however text, dimensions and other annotation can be an issue,
particularly fonts and formats. No matter what data is to be
translated, there is also a need to preserve attributes (such as color
and layer of graphical objects) and metadata stored within the
files.
• Some translation methods are more successful than others at
translating data between CAD systems. Native formats offer the
simple translation of 3D solids, but even so there are few pitfalls
to watch out for. If two CAD systems use different representations
for one type of geometry at some point the representation must be
converted or even discarded, regardless of the type of translation.
Neutral formats are designed partly to solve this problem, but no
format can completely eliminate all translation issues.
The most common CAD data exchange problems via neutral
formats are:
• loss of the architectural structure
• change the names of parts with numbers or names assigned to the
directories where they are stored
• loss of bodies from the assemblies
• displace of details of their correct position relative to the original
model
• loss of the original color of the parts
• visualization of details of their correct position relative to the
original model
• displaying the construction lines that are hidden in the original
product
• modification in the graphic information
• Modification on hollow bodies into solid bodies.
Challenges with point cloud data
• Data Format: New devices out there in the market yields back data in a
new form. Often, one needs to bring together data in different formats
from different devices against a compatible software tool. This presents
a not-so-easy situation
• Data Size: With the advent of new devices, scanning has become
cheaper with greater outputs. It is possible to scan huge assets from a
single scan. This has resulted in the creation of tens of thousands of data
points. A huge data of points can be challenging to handle and share
between project partners.
• Inter-operability: Integration between new technologies with the existing
software can be quite arduous. Although, with careful investment of
time and money, the goal can be achieved nonetheless.
• Access: All the professionals involved in the entire lifecycle of a product
can benefit from having access to point cloud data. But multiple datasets
in multiple formats usually makes it more of a hassle.
• Ownership: Who owns point cloud data? In the past, EPCs and the
contractors who capture the data become custodians of the information.
• Rendering: Different formats can result in rendering problems for point
clouds.
Mesh Quality
The quality of a mesh plays a significant role in the accuracy and stability
of the numerical computation. Regardless of the type of mesh used in your
domain, checking the quality of your mesh is a must. The ‘good meshes’
are the ones that produce results with fairly acceptable level of accuracy,
considering that all other inputs to the model are accurate. While evaluating
whether the quality of the mesh is sufficient for the problem under
modeling, it is important to consider attributes such as mesh element
distribution, cell shape, smoothness, and flow-field dependency. The
affecting factors are,
• Element Distribution
• Cell Quality
• Orthogonal Quality
• Aspect Ratio
• Skewness
• Smoothness
• Flow-Field Dependency
• Correct Mesh Size
3D PRINTING (Additive Manufacturing)
• 3D printing, or additive manufacturing, is the construction of a three-
dimensional object from a CAD model or a digital 3D model.
• 3D Printing is a process for making a physical object from a three-
dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many successive
thin layers of a material. It brings a digital object (its CAD
representation) into its physical form by adding layer by layer of
materials.
• 3D printable models may be created with a computer-aided design
(CAD) package, via a 3D scanner, or by a plain digital camera and
photogrammetric software.
• The starting point for any 3D printing process is a 3D digital model,
which can be created using a variety of 3D software programmes — in
industry this is 3D CAD, for Makers and Consumers there are simpler,
more accessible programmes available — or scanned with a 3D scanner.
The model is then ‘sliced’ into layers, thereby converting the design into
a file readable by the 3D printer. The material processed by the 3D
printer is then layered according to the design and the process.
• Some 3D printers process powdered materials (nylon, plastic, ceramic,
metal), which utilize a light/heat source to sinter/melt/fuse layers of the
powder together in the defined shape.
3D PRINTING (Additive Manufacturing)
Various 3D Printing Processes Involves
1) Stereolithography: Here a laser-based process that works with
photopolymer resins, that react with the laser and cure to form a solid
in a very precise way to produce very accurate parts. It is a complex
process, but simply put, the photopolymer resin is held in a vat with a
movable platform inside. A laser beam is directed in the X-Y axes
across the surface of the resin according to the 3D data supplied to the
machine (the .stl file), whereby the resin hardens precisely where the
laser hits the surface. Once the layer is completed, the platform within
the vat drops down by a fraction (in the Z axis) and the subsequent
layer is traced out by the laser. This continues until the entire object is
completed and the platform can be raised out of the vat for removal.
2) DLP — or digital light processing — is a similar process to
stereolithography in that it is a 3D printing process that works with
photopolymers. The major difference is the light source. DLP uses a
more conventional light source, such as an arc lamp, with a liquid
crystal display panel or a deformable mirror device (DMD), which is
applied to the entire surface of the vat of photopolymer resin in a single
pass, generally making it faster than SL.
3) Laser sintering and laser melting are interchangeable terms that
refer to a laser based 3D printing process that works with
powdered materials. The laser is traced across a powder bed of
tightly compacted powdered material, according to the 3D data fed
to the machine, in the X-Y axes. As the laser interacts with the
surface of the powdered material it sinters, or fuses, the particles
to each other forming a solid. As each layer is completed the
powder bed drops incrementally and a roller smoothes the
powders over the surface of the bed prior to the next pass of the
laser for the subsequent layer to be formed and fused with the
previous layer. The build chamber is completely sealed as it is
necessary to maintain a precise temperature during the process
specific to the melting point of the powdered material of choice.
Once finished, the entire powder bed is removed from the machine
and the excess powder can be removed to leave the ‘printed’ parts.
4) Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) The process works by
melting plastic filament that is deposited, via a heated extruder, a
layer at a time, onto a build platform according to the 3D data
supplied to the printer. Each layer hardens as it is deposited and
bonds to the previous layer.
5) Binder jetting: where the material being jetted is a binder, and is
selectively sprayed into a powder bed of the part material to fuse it
a layer at a time to create/print the required part. As is the case
with other powder bed systems, once a layer is completed, the
powder bed drops incrementally and a roller or blade smoothes the
powder over the surface of the bed, prior to the next pass of the jet
heads, with the binder for the subsequent layer to be formed and
fused with the previous layer.
6) Material jetting: a 3D printing process whereby the actual build
materials (in liquid or molten state) are selectively jetted through
multiple jet heads (with others simultaneously jetting support
materials). However, the materials tend to be liquid
photopolymers, which are cured with a pass of UV light as each
layer is deposited. The nature of this product allows for the
simultaneous deposition of a range of materials, which means that
a single part can be produced from multiple materials with
different characteristics and properties. Material jetting is a very
precise 3D printing method, producing accurate parts with a very
smooth finish.
7) The SDL 3D printing process builds parts layer by layer using
standard copier paper. Each new layer is fixed to the previous
layer using an adhesive, which is applied selectively according to
the 3D data supplied to the machine. This means that a much
higher density of adhesive is deposited in the area that will
become the part, and a much lower density of adhesive is applied
in the surrounding area that will serve as the support, ensuring
relatively easy “weeding,” or support removal. After a new sheet
of paper is fed into the 3D printer from the paper feed mechanism
and placed on top of the selectively applied adhesive on the
previous layer, the build plate is moved up to a heat plate and
pressure is applied. This pressure ensures a positive bond between
the two sheets of paper. The build plate then returns to the build
height where an adjustable Tungsten carbide blade cuts one sheet
of paper at a time, tracing the object outline to create the edges of
the part. When this cutting sequence is complete, the 3D printer
deposits the next layer of adhesive and so on until the part is
complete.
8) The Electron Beam Melting 3D printing technique is very similar
to the Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) process in terms of
the formation of parts from metal powder. The key difference is
the heat source, which, as the name suggests is an electron beam,
rather than a laser, which necessitates that the procedure is carried
out under vacuum conditions.
• 3D Printing Materials Involves, Plastics, Metal, Ceramics, Paper,
bio materials, food etc.
• Advantages includes, mass customization, manufacturing of more
complex models, less tooling, Sustainable / Environmentally
Friendly.
• Applications include Medical and Dental, Aerospace, Automotive,
Jewellery, Art / Design / Sculpture, Architecture, Fashion, Food,
Consumers etc.
CAE (Computer aided Engineering)
• Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the broad usage of computer
software to aid in engineering analysis tasks. It includes finite element
analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), Multibody
dynamics (MBD), durability and optimization.
• Computer aided engineering primarily uses Computer Aided Design
(CAD) software, which are sometimes called CAE tools. CAE tools are
being used, for example, to analyze the robustness and performance of
components and assemblies. The term encompasses simulation,
validation, and optimization of products and manufacturing tools.
• CAE systems are individually considered a single node on a total
information network and each node may interact with other nodes on
the network.
• CAE systems can provide support to businesses. This is achieved by the
use of reference architectures and their ability to place information
views on the business process. Reference architecture is the basis from
which information model, especially product and manufacturing
models.
CAE (Computer aided Engineering)
• Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the broad usage of computer
software to aid in engineering analysis tasks. It includes finite element
analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), Multibody
dynamics (MBD), durability and optimization.
• Computer aided engineering primarily uses Computer Aided Design
(CAD) software, which are sometimes called CAE tools. CAE tools are
being used, for example, to analyze the robustness and performance of
components and assemblies. The term encompasses simulation,
validation, and optimization of products and manufacturing tools.
• CAE systems are individually considered a single node on a total
information network and each node may interact with other nodes on
the network.
• CAE systems can provide support to businesses. This is achieved by the
use of reference architectures and their ability to place information
views on the business process. Reference architecture is the basis from
which information model, especially product and manufacturing
models.
Applications of CAE
• CAE applications support a wide range of engineering disciplines
or phenomena.
• Stress and dynamics analysis on components and assemblies using
finite element analysis (FEA)
• Thermal and fluid analysis using computational fluid dynamics
(CFD)
• Kinematics and dynamic analysis of mechanisms (multibody
dynamics)
• Acoustics analysis using FEA or a boundary element method
(BEM)
• 1D CAE, or mechatronic system simulation, for multi-domain
mechatronics system design
• Mechanical event simulation (MES)
• Control systems analysis
• Simulation of manufacturing processes like casting, molding and
die press forming
• Optimization of the product or process
Benefits of CAE
• The benefits of CAE include reduced product development cost and
time, with improved product quality and durability.
• Design decisions can be made based on their impact on performance.
• Designs can be evaluated and refined using computer simulations rather
than physical prototype testing, saving money and time.
• CAE can provide performance insights earlier in the development
process, when design changes are less expensive to make.
• CAE helps engineering teams manage risk and understand the
performance implications of their designs.
• Integrated CAE data and process management extends the ability to
effectively leverage performance insights and improve designs to a
broader community.
• Warranty exposure is reduced by identifying and eliminating potential
problems. When properly integrated into product and manufacturing
development, CAE can enable earlier problem resolution, which can
dramatically reduce the costs associated with the product lifecycle.
FEA (Finite Element Analysis):
• Finite element analysis (FEA) is the process of simulating the behavior
of a part or assembly under given conditions so that it can be assessed
using the finite element method (FEM).
• FEA uses mathematical models to understand and quantify the effects of
real-world conditions on a part or assembly. These simulations, which
are conducted via specialized software, allow engineers to locate
potential problems in a design, including areas of tension and weak
spots. With the use of mathematics it is possible to understand and
quantify structural or fluid behavior, wave propagation, thermal
transport and other phenomena.
• The simulations used in FEA are created using a mesh of millions of
smaller elements that combine to create the shape of the structure that is
being assessed. Each of these small elements is subjected to calculations,
with these mesh refinements combining to produce the final result of the
whole structure.These approximate calculations are usually polynomial,
with interpolations occurring across the small elements, meaning that
values can be determined at some but not all points. The points where
the values can be determined are called nodal points and can usually be
found at the boundary of the element.
Information required by FEA on a software system
• Nodal point spatial locations
• Elements connecting the nodal points
• Mass properties and boundary restraints
• Loading or forcing function details
• Analysis options
The basic steps involved are
• Discretization or subdivision of the domain
• Selection of the interpolation functions (to provide an
approximation of the unknown solution within an element)
• Formulation of the system of equations (also the major step in
FEM. The typical Ritz variation and Galerkin methods can be
used.)
• Solution of the system of equations (Once we have solved the
system of equations, we can then compute the desired parameters
and display the result in form of curves, plots, or color pictures,
which are more meaningful and interpretable.)
Advantages includes,
• Modeling. FEM allows for easier modeling of complex geometrical and
irregular shapes. Because the designer is able to model both the interior and
exterior, he or she can determine how critical factors might affect the entire
structure and why failures might occur.
• Adaptability. FEM can be adapted to meet certain specifications for accuracy
in order to decrease the need for physical prototypes in the design process.
Creating multiple iterations of initial prototypes is usually a costly and timely
process. Instead of spending weeks on hard prototyping, the designer can model
different designs and materials in hours via software.
• Accuracy. While modeling a complex physical deformity by hand can be
impractical, a computer using FEM can solve the problem with a high degree of
accuracy.
• Time-dependent simulation. FEM is highly useful for certain time-dependent
simulations, such as crash simulations, in which deformations in one area
depend on deformation in another area.
• Boundaries. With FEM, designers can use boundary conditions to define to
which conditions the model needs to respond. Boundary conditions can include
point forces, distributed forces, thermal effects (such as temperature changes or
applied heat energy), and positional constraints.
• Visualization. Engineers can easily spot any vulnerability in design with the
detailed visualizations FEM produces, then use the new data to make a new
design.
Disadvantages of Finite Element Method
• Large amount of data is required as input for the mesh used in terms of
nodal connectivity and other parameters depending on the problem.
• It requires a digital computer and fairly extensive
• It requires longer execution time compared with FEM.
• Output result will vary considerably.
Areas of FEA Application
• A FEA is the most common tool for stress and structural analysis. It can
also receive input data from other tools like kinematics analysis systems
and computation fluid dynamics systems. FEA software can be used in:
• Mechanical Engineering design
• Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) and engineering simulation services
• Structural Analysis
• Modal Analysis
• Solid mechanics
• Mould Flow Analysis
• Fatigue & Fracture Mechanics
• Thermal and Electrical analysis
• Sheet Metal forming analysis
CFD (Computational Fluid dynamics):
• Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid
mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to
analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. Computers
are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the free-
stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (liquids
and gases) with surfaces defined by boundary conditions.
• The basic objective of this tool is to solve approximately the flow
and basic equations that give us the movements and other
characteristics of the flow.
• CFD is applied to a wide range of research and engineering
problems in many fields of study and industries, including
aerodynamics and aerospace analysis, weather simulation, natural
science and environmental engineering, industrial system design
and analysis, biological engineering, fluid flows and heat transfer,
and engine and combustion analysis.
The same basic procedure is followed.
• The geometry and physical bounds of the problem can be defined
using computer aided design (CAD). From there, data can be
suitably processed (cleaned-up) and the fluid volume (or fluid
domain) is extracted.
• The volume occupied by the fluid is divided into discrete cells (the
mesh). The mesh may be uniform or non-uniform, structured or
unstructured, consisting of a combination of hexahedral,
tetrahedral, prismatic, pyramidal or polyhedral elements.
• The physical modeling is defined – for example, the equations of
fluid motion + enthalpy + radiation + species conservation
• Boundary conditions are defined. This involves specifying the
fluid behavior and properties at all bounding surfaces of the fluid
domain. For transient problems, the initial conditions are also
defined.
• The simulation is started and the equations are solved iteratively
as a steady-state or transient.
• Finally a postprocessor is used for the analysis and visualization of
the resulting solution.
.
.
.
CAM (Subtractive Manufacturing)
• Computer-aided manufacturing is the use of software and computer-
controlled machinery (CNC) to automate the manufacturing process.
• It stands for computer-aided manufacturing and usually works in tandem
with CAD (computer-aided design) to allow machines to create objects
directly from computer designs and software rather than engineers
having to set up machines and processes manually.
• Computer-aided manufacturing software translates drawings and data
into detailed instructions that drive automated tools/machines. This
allows designers to submit designs and specifications directly to
machines without the need to develop jigs or program machines
manually.
• Typically, a designer will use CAD software on their computer to create
a 3D design of a model or part. The software talks to CAM
tools/machines to set up the processes to produce/tool the physical item
automatically. CAM machines can then produce thousands of identical
models automatically – reducing the time it takes to produce.
Its main roles are:
• Tool path designs create computer models of new designs
• Machining equipment in manufacturing that rely on numerical
controls for precision cutting, shaping and packaging
• Management of overall production process to drive efficiency
• Fabrication and engineering design which relies on the integration
and synchronization of various pieces of machinery with CAM
software with Equipment safety.
Advantages of CAM
• Predictable and consistent
• Flexible and versatile, CAM systems can maximize utilization of a full
range of production equipment (high-speed, 5-axis, multi-function and
turning machines, electrical discharge machining (EDM) and CMM
inspection equipment)
• Ability to create prototypes quickly and without waste
• Can aid in optimizing NC programs for optimum machining
productivity
• Can automate the creation of performance reports
• Provides integration of various systems and processes as part of the
manufacturing process
• Higher productivity
• Designs can be altered without the need to manually re-program
machines especially with parametric CAD software
• Ease of implementation as CAD and CAM systems become
standardized
• CAD and CAM software continues to evolve offering visual
representation and integration of modeling and testing applications
• Accuracy.
Disadvantages of CAM
• Computer errors are possible
• CAD and CAM software can be expensive
• Training is expensive
• Computers and controllers to run the software and CNC machinery for
manufacturing is expensive.
Applications:
• Aerospace: it can create complex workpieces including free-form
surfaces and deep cavities in materials such as titanium and super-alloys.
• Automotive: CAM can deliver circles, regular cubes and subtle curves
on the surfaces as part of large assemblies with robust manufacturing
capabilities and product data management (PDM) capabilities.
• Chemicals: CAM will specify the volume of raw and secondary
materials used in the chemical process.
• Medical technology: 3D printing is used to create models of injuries and
other health issues, CAM creates flexible endoscopic systems and
dentists can now provide precision in chairside milling, orthodontics and
implant workflows.
Disadvantages of CAM
• Computer errors are possible
• CAD and CAM software can be expensive
• Training is expensive
• Computers and controllers to run the software and CNC machinery for
manufacturing is expensive.
Applications:
• Aerospace: it can create complex workpieces including free-form
surfaces and deep cavities in materials such as titanium and super-alloys.
• Automotive: CAM can deliver circles, regular cubes and subtle curves
on the surfaces as part of large assemblies with robust manufacturing
capabilities and product data management (PDM) capabilities.
• Chemicals: CAM will specify the volume of raw and secondary
materials used in the chemical process.
• Medical technology: 3D printing is used to create models of injuries and
other health issues, CAM creates flexible endoscopic systems and
dentists can now provide precision in chairside milling, orthodontics and
implant workflows.
Additive Vs Subtractive Manufacturing Processes:
Similarities:
• Primary aim of both additive and subtractive manufacturing
approaches is to fabricate a solid 3-D product with better surface
finish and close tolerance at minimum number of steps.
• Both approaches are used in today’s manufacturing industries
(none of them is obsolete); however, subtractive approach is used
overwhelmingly still now.
Differences:
Additive Manufacturing
• In additive manufacturing, layer by layer
material is added one over another to develop
desired solid 3-D product.
• This manufacturing concept is usually suitable
for materials having low melting point, such as
plastic.
• Volumetric density (thus weight) of the
constructive material of final component can
be controlled during operation.
• No material wastage takes place in these
processes.
• Complex shapes can be easily fabricated using
additive manufacturing techniques.
• Structures containing fully closed internal
hollow parts can be produced by these
processes.
• These processes are applicable to a narrow
range of materials.
• These processes are time consuming and
costly but can provide superior quality and
desired property without requiring any further
processing.
Subtractive Manufacturing
• In subtractive manufacturing, layer by layer
material is gradually removed from a solid
block to fabricate 3-D product.
• This manufacturing concept can be applied to
all solid materials irrespective of melting
point.
• Material density cannot be controlled during
operation. Density of object remains same with
that of the initial solid block (usually a cast
product).
• These processes are associated with material
wastage in the form of chips, scraps, dissolved
ions, vapors, etc.
• Subtractive manufacturing processes have
limited capability in fabrication of complex
shapes.
• Structures containing enclosed hollow parts
cannot be produced by these processes, unless
joining is allowed.
• These processes can efficiently handle a wide
variety of materials.
• These processes are time efficient and
economic. These are usually suitable for mass
production where requirement of product
quality is not so tight.
Multi-Body Dynamics (Motion Simulations):
• In multibody dynamics analysis, we are concerned with dynamics of
mutually-interconnected multiple rigid bodies. The purpose of this
analysis is to find how those bodies move as a system and what forces
are generated in the process. This is typically done numerically using
computers.
• E.g "double rigid pendulum," where two rigid bodies mutually
connected with a hinge are hung from a ceiling with another hinge. If
the end of the pendulum is raised and released, the pendulum starts to
oscillate. How the position and the velocity of the pendulum change
with time and what forces act on the two hinges when the pendulum is
in motion can be obtained by multibody dynamics analysis.
• In general, in order to compute the motion of bodies it is required first to
formulate the equations of motion and second to integrate them. In
multibody dynamics analysis, the equations of motion are formulated in
some deterministic manner from information of each rigid body (mass,
center of mass, inertia tensor) and interaction conditions between bodies
(forces, constraints). The equations of motion are then integrated and
solved numerically by a program called ODE (or DAE) solver. (ODE =
ordinary differential equation, DAE = differential algebraic equation.)
Input and output of multibody dynamics analysis
• Typical input and output data for multibody dynamics analysis are as
follows.
• Input data:
1. Rigid bodies (mass, center of mass, inertia tensor)
2. Constraints (joints, prescribed motions, etc.)
3. Forces (springs, dampers, frictions, contact forces, gravity, external
forces, etc.)
4. Initial conditions (initial position, initial velocity, initial orientation,
initial angular velocity)
5. Integration parameters (choice of solver, step size, tolerance, simulation
time, etc.)
• Output data:
1. Motions of rigid bodies (position, velocity, orientation, angular velocity)
2. Joint reaction forces
3. Other forces
4. Input data are coded in an input file. Multibody dynamics analysis
software reads the input file and executes a multibody dynamics
analysis. The output data, motions and forces, are then written in some
output files.
• Many of commercial multibody dynamics analysis software
packages include programs called pre-processor and post-
processor. A pre-processor is a program whose function is mainly
to allow the user to create an input file through graphic interface
manipulations. A post-processor is a program whose function is
mainly to make graphs and animations from output data. Both
programs are to support the user to conduct multibody dynamics
analysis more conveniently.
• Without a post-processor, the user has to use external programs to
make graphs and animations. To make graphs, numerical analysis
software with basic plotting functions such as MATLAB, Scilab,
or Octave can be used. To make animations, EasyAnim, which is
maintained by the MBDyn project team, may be used. It has also
been proposed to use software like Blender, free 3D graphics
software, for animation. As an alternative, numerical analysis
software such as MATLAB often has sophisticated graphics
functionalities and may also be used to make animations.
AR/VR applications (Augmented & Virtual Reality Simulations)
• AR has the possibility to project on the real world the results coming
from a pre-computed simulation. It concerns the rendering on the scene
of all the objects involved in the simulation whose position is updated
according to the results of the simulation. The advantage is to perceive
the interaction with the real world and check working spaces, possible
interferences, etc.
• Since the implementations of AR are based on the image acquisition and
processing, the most simple sensor is a flat patterned marker. Starting
from these considerations, a generic multibody simulation in augmented
reality can be implemented following four main steps:
1) Before the simulation starts, the geometries and topological
properties (joints and connections) have to be defined (as for any
multibody system);
2) The real scene has to contain information for collimating the real
world to the virtual objects and the virtual sensor(s) for the
interactive action of the user (i.e. has to contain an adequate number
of patterned markers);
3) During each frame acquisition, the multibody equations have to be
solved in order to compute the correct position of all the virtual
bodies in the scene, taking into account the information coming
from the sensors;
4) For each frame acquisition, virtual objects have to be rendered on
the scene in the correct position and attitude. The rendering of
geometries can be implemented using OpenGL capabilities.
• The implementation of multibody simulation in the augmented
reality reveals many attractive features. First of all, it is possible to
perform simulation of a virtual object projecting the results in the
real environment. By this way it is possible to check the
integration between the virtual objects and the real ones. It is also
possible to move the digital mechanism dragging intuitive sensors,
instead of the mouse and keyboard, as it happens in the standard
CAE environment.
Introduction to CAD Geometry Clean-up
• “Dirty” or overcomplicated CAD data was the single largest obstacle to the
routine use of CFD or other numerical simulations early in the design process.
• A good example of dirty CAD is a collection of parts, such as automotive
underhood components, that must be combined into a single surface before
building a computational mesh suitable for analysis. Individual components
might not fit together perfectly, with volumes that overlap or surfaces that
interfere with each other.
• Another example is a fully detailed CAD part that requires defeaturing. Yet
another example is a part assembly configured for manufacture. It contains
gaps, likely to prevent meshing, where welds, screws, rivets, and the like are to
be placed.
• Tools to Reduce Time Between Your CAD Model and FE Model
1) Feature Removal: Removing unnecessary details from the geometry
2) Geometry Editing Tools: Modifying geometry to create well-shaped mesh
elements
3) Combined/Composite Curves: Combining curves to create a higher quality
mesh
4) Combined/Boundary Surfaces: Combining surfaces to create a higher
quality mesh
5) Mesh Sizing: Interactively adjust the size of your mesh.