Methods

Design

Sampling Size/Selection

Study Site

Method
Instrumentation

Section Ethical Considerations

Data Gathering Procedure

Mode of Analysis
Quantitative
Research Design
and
Methodologies
 This type of research design
generates statistics through the use
of large-scale survey research, using
methods such as questionnaires or
structured interviews.
Quantitative
Research Research design is Data driven
Design which allows researchers to apply
statistical analysis to interpret
findings.
 Primary Source – Unmediated or
direct sources.

This type of data is direct sources of evidence that

the researcher creates and/or gathers themselves.

Types of
These are first-hand account of some
Data phenomenon.
According
to Source Examples of primary sources include documents, letters,
diaries, photographs, maps, charts, sound recordings,
completed questionnaires, completed scales, interview
transcripts, FGD transcripts, reports, and original manuscripts.
 Secondary Source – Does not provide
original information or evidence.

They refer to original information or

evidence published in primary sources.

Types of This refers to analysis of data, interpretation

Data or discussion of primary sources and further
According explained through current research.

to Source Examples of secondary sources include publications,

textbooks, newspaper and magazine articles,
histories, and criticisms, commentaries on
experiences, events and phenomena.
 Descriptive-Status and
Survey
Examines the characteristics,
Descriptive attitudes, behaviors, and
Designs intention of a group of
people by asking individuals
through questionnaires
 Descriptive-Cross-Sectional
Involves the collection of
data from representatives
Descriptive from a population with a
Designs different variable of interest
at one point in time
 Descriptive-Longitudinal
Involves the collection of
data at two or more points in
Descriptive time. It also involves the study
Designs of trends, changes, or
development over time
 Descriptive-Analytic
Examines the various aspects
of a given event by
Descriptive describing the variables that
Designs play in a current
phenomenon
 Descriptive-Evaluative
Involves the collection and
analysis of information
Descriptive relating to the effectiveness
Designs and functioning of a program
or procedure
 Descriptive-Comparative
Involves the collection and
analysis of information
Descriptive relating to how views,
Designs practices, procedures differ
and compare
 Descriptive-Causal
Comparative or Ex-post Facto
Examines the relationships among
variables. It attempts to
Descriptive determine the cause or reason for
Designs pre-existing differences in groups
or individuals.
PROBABILITY VS NONPROBABILITY
SIMPLE RANDOM
SYSTEMATIC
QUANTITATIVE
STRATIFIED
CLUSTER and MULTI-STAGE
SAMPLING
Population
A population is any complete
group with at least one
characteristic in common.
Clearly identify the population
being studied to understand the
included in the data.
Sampling
A predetermined number
of observations representing
a larger population based
on the type of analysis.
The Sample
When dealing with people, it
can be defined as a set of
correspondents (people)
selected from a larger
population for the purpose of
the survey.
The Sample Size
Sample size is important -> must
be large enough
Too big sample increases costs,
too small sample causes
insufficient of data to reach any
meaningful conclusions
 Types of Sampling

Probability Sampling

• Everyone can be chosen, by equal

chance, as a participant in the
Sampling study.
Methods
Non-probability Sampling

• Only a select few can be used as a

participant in the study.
Probability Sampling
Probability or random sampling gives
all members of the population a
known chance of being selected for
inclusion in the sample and this does
not depend upon previous events in
the selection process.
1. Simple Random Sampling
This is the ideal choice as it is a perfect random
method. Individuals are randomly selected from
a list of the population and every single
individual has an equal chance of selection.

This method is ideal, but if it cannot be adopted,

one of the following alternatives may be chosen
if any shortfall in accuracy.
2. Systematic Sampling
When performing systematic
sampling, every element from the
list is selected (referred as the
sample interval) from a randomly
selected starting point.
2. Systematic Sampling

This sampling method

concerns the
arrangement of
elements in the list.
3. Stratified Sampling

Used when there are a

number of distinct
subgroups, within each of
which it is required that
there is full representation.
3. Stratified Sampling
Constructed by classifying the population
in sub-populations (or strata), based on
some well-known characteristics of the
population, such as age, gender or socio-
economic status.
The selection of elements is then made
separately from within each strata, usually
by random or systematic sampling
methods.
4. Cluster and Multi-stage Sampling

This form of sampling is

conducted by randomly
selecting subgroups of the
population
4. Cluster and Multi-stage Sampling

Cluster is treated as the

sampling unit so sampling is
done on a population of
clusters
4. Cluster and Multi-stage Sampling

The sample is generally done by first

sampling at the higher level(s) until the
final stage is reached, at which point the
sampling is done in a simple random
manner
The ‘levels’ in question are defined by
subgroups into which it is appropriate to
subdivide your population.
 STATISTICAL
ANALYSIS
QUANTITATIVE (DESCRIPTIVE VS
INFERENTIAL)
DATA ANALYSIS UNIVARIATE
BIVARIATE
MULTIVARIATE
Statistical Analysis:
Descriptive Statistics
and Inferential Statistics

QUANTITATIVE DATA
 Measure of Measures of Other Measures
Central Dispersion
Tendency
MEAN: RANGE: PERCENTAGE:
Descriptive arithmetic minimum and scale from 1 to
Statistics average maximum values 100
in a range of
-used to MEDIAN: most data. FREQUENCY
describe the commonly DISTRIBUTION:
data gathered. occurring value STANDARD condenses the
DEVIATION: information into
MODE: middle spread of data a simple format
-also value of a range about the mean which will allow
Summarizing the reader to
statistics VARIANCE: the picture the way
extent to which in which the
the values in the variable is
data set differ distributed.
from the mean
 T-TEST: used to decide if the means
of two groups are statistically
different
Inferential
Statistics ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA):
Testing whether the means of different
-used to provide groups are common or different.
conclusion beyond
the extent of data.
CORRELATION TEST: measures the extent
-used to infer based to which an independent variable
on the study of a predicts a dependent variable.
sample population.

TEST FOR INDEPENDENCE: explains

whether any two given variable
changes at the same or different rate.
Types of Data Analysis
1. Univariate Analysis – Analysis conducted
using only one variable. (eg. frequency,
proportion)
2. Bivariate Analysis – Analysis conducted
on two variables. (eg. chi-square test, One-
way ANOVA)
3. Multivariate Analysis – Analysis conducted
on more than two variables (eg. regression
analysis)
Qualitative
Research
Design and
Methodologies
 Qualitative Research
Research design which explores
attitudes, behavior and experiences
through such methods as interviews
and focused group discussion. It
attempts to get an in-depth opinion
from participant.
Qualitative Research
Form of social inquiry that
focuses on the way people
interpret and make sense of
their experiences and the world.
Clarification of meaning which
cannot be answered by
quantitative research
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research answer questions on:
Why people behave the way they do?
How opinions and attitudes are formed?
How people are affected by the events
that go on around them?
How and why cultures have developed?
The difference between social groups?
Phenomenology

Describes something that exist as

part of the world (Husserl, 1964)
The isolation of the essence of the
shared human lived experiences from
a phenomenon described by the
respondents
Case Study

In-depth analysis of a single or

small number of units that have
similarities. (Yin, 1984)
It typically focuses on the
surrounding issues within that
phenomenon.
Ethnography

The term means “portrait of people”

Describes the people inside a
culture/society from immersion and
interviews
Narrative Study

A story-oriented design that

uses the spoken or written
words of the source in
determining the life as told by
the source themselves
Grounded Theory
Development of a new theory
through the reflexive collection and
constant comparative analysis of
data the data about a phenomenon
The explanation are genuinely new
knowledge and mostly process-
based
 Direct
interaction with
individuals/
DATA Interviews
COLLECTION Focus Group
Discussion
TECHNIQUES Observation
Documents and
other media
Direct interaction with individuals/
Interviews
Structured interviews
designed to gather pertinent information
regarding the research topic. Here, a series of
questions is being asked, response are
recorded/tallied and treated using quantitative
methods.
 Direct interaction with individuals/
Interviews
Semi structured interviews
Series of open ended questions – (Provide opportunities
to discuss certain topics in more details)
Able to know specific information which can be
compared and contrasted with information gained from
other interviews.
The same questions are asked in each interview and are
designed to have response from interviewee’s remain
flexible so that other important information can still arise.
Using this methodology requires an interview schedule or
a list of questions or topics to be discussed.
Unstructured interviews
Life story interviews
This methodology attempts to achieve a holistic
understanding of the interviewee’s point of view on
certain situations (eg. experience on World War 2,
Martial Law Era, People Power, etc.).
Questions are asked freely but within the scope of the
topic of the research.
Participants are free to talk about what he or she
deems important with little directional influence from
the researcher.
Questions should be asked sparingly while recognizing
important information and probing for more detail.
 Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
An FGD requires gathering a number of people to discuss
a certain issue in line with the topic of the research.
 The discussion is led by a moderator or facilitator.
Topic is introduced together with specific guidelines to
avoid digressions and stops break-away conversations
making sure that no one person dominates the discussion
whilst trying to ensure that each of the participants make
contribution to the information being gathered.
FGDs are recorded and documented
Observation

Observation can serve verifying

or nullifying information collected
from other methods
Observation of people VS.
observation of environment
Observation

Observers are suggested to

record (via tools) since there are
instances that they can be
missed
Tools (such as videos) may
become problematic in obtaining
answers
Documents and Audio-Visual Materials

Audio-Visual
Photographs, Video tapes, Art
Materials, Messages, Sounds, Film
Documentation
Policy document, annual reports,
minutes of meeting, codes of conduct,
notice boards etc.
 Questionnaires
 Questionnaires are designed to gather all information needed
to complete the research, the following are the type of
questions included in the questionnaire:
 1. Closed-ended – Questions follows a set of format to
generate statistics that would explain respondents’ behavior,
habit or familiarity towards the given subject or research topic.
 2. Open-ended – No standard response is expected from the
respondents as opinions are sought rather than numbers.
Compared to Closed-ended questions, the questionnaires are
used to find out what people think about the service instead of
just counting how many are using it.
 3. Combination of both - questionnaires begin with a series of
closed questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then
finish with a section of open questions for more detailed
response.
NONPROBABILITY
ACCIDENTAL
QUALITATIVE
PURPOSIVE

SAMPLING
Non-probability Sampling Methods

Non-probability
sampling procedures are
much less desirable, due
to sampling biases.
Non-Probability Sampling

Accidental Sampling:
Convenient time/place
of selecting the
respondent.
Non-Probability Sampling

Purposive Sampling: The presence of

a specific characteristic and
objective from the respondents
Criterion Sampling – modality of req.
Expert Sampling – known people
Quota Sampling – proportionality
Non-Probability Sampling

Purposive Sampling: The presence of

a specific characteristic and
objective from the respondents
Deviant Sampling - Difference
Snowball Sampling – referral system
Heterogeneity Sampling - diversity
 QUALITATIVE THEMATIC
TEXTUAL
CRITICAL DISCOURSE
DATA ANALYSIS SEMIOTIC
Thematic Analysis

Performs the coding process to

formulate themes from patterns
A theme minimally describes your
data set to the research question
It represents some level of
patterned response
Textual Analysis

Used to interpret the characteristics,

content, structure, and functions of
recorded or visual messages
contained in a text
Uses the perspective of the writer to
interpret the data
Critical Discourse Analysis

Analyzing the language as a

communication tool in
manifesting hierarchy, the
ideologies, and hegemony
involved in a discourse
It is highly connected to social
theories involved in linguistics
Semiotic Analysis

Phenomena and culture are studied as

signs
Signs are forms of messages that represent
things apart from themselves
Explores the content, meaning, structure,
interaction between signs, and formation
of sign systems
TRIANGULATED DESIGNS
Sequential Explanatory Triangulated Design

Collection and
Uses qualitative results
analysis of
to assist in explaining
quantitative data
and interpreting the
followed by a
findings of a
collection and analysis
quantitative study.
of qualitative data.
 An initial phase of
qualitative data This strategy may also
collection and analysis be useful when
followed by a phase of developing and testing
quantitative data a new instrument
collection and analysis.

Sequential Exploratory Triangulated Design

Concurrent Triangulation Triangulated
Design

Two or more methods Generally, both

used to confirm, cross- methods are used to
validate, or verify overcome a weakness
findings within a study. in using one method
Data collection is with the strengths of
simultaneous. another.
Sequential Transformative Triangulated
Design

Collection and analysis

of either quantitative or Employs the methods
qualitative data first. that best serve a
The results are theoretical
integrated in the perspective.
interpretation phase.
Concurrent Nested Triangulated Design

A nested approach that

Addresses a different
gives priority to one of
question than the
the methods and guides
dominant or to seek
the project, while
information from
another is embedded or
different levels.
“nested.”
Concurrent Transformative Triangulated
Design

The use of a theoretical

perspective reflected in
Evaluates a theoretical
the purpose or research
perspective at different
questions of the study to
levels of analysis.
guide all methodological
choices.