ECE 476

Power System Analysis

Lecture 10: Per Unit, Three-Phase
Transformers, Load and Generators

Prof. Tom Overbye

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
overbye@illinois.edu
Announcements

• Please read Chapter 2.4, Chapter 6 up to 6.6

• HW 4 is due now; HW 5 is 5.31, 5.43, 3.4, 3.10, 3.14,
3.19, 3.23, 3.60, 6.30 should be done before exam 1
• Exam 1 is Thursday Oct 6 in class
• Closed book, closed notes, but you may bring one 8.5 by 11
inch note sheet and standard calculators
• Last name A-M here, N to Z in ECEB 1013
• Power Area Scholarships, Awards (Oct 1 deadlines,
except Nov 1 for Grainger)
• http://energy.ece.illinois.edu/
• Turn both into Prof Sauer (4046 or 4060)
1
Service Entrance Grounding

We’ll
talk more
about
grounding
later in
the semester
when we
cover faults

Image: www.osha.gov/dte/library/electrical/electrical_10.gif

2
Per Unit Calculations

• A key problem in analyzing power systems is the

large number of transformers.
– It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the transformers
• This problem is avoided by a normalization of all
variables.
• This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity

3
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1f

1. Pick a 1f VA base for the entire system, SB

2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
VB. Voltage bases are related by transformer turns
ratios. Voltages are line to neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note, per unit conversion on affects magnitudes, not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
4
Per Unit Solution Procedure

1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems are

already in per unit)
2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary

5
Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power

in the circuit shown below using per unit analysis
with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases of
8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV.

Original Circuit
6
Per Unit Example, cont’d

8kV 2
Z BLeft   0.64
100 MVA
80kV 2
Z BMiddle   64
100 MVA
16kV 2 Same circuit, with
Z BRight   2.56
100 MVA values expressed
in per unit.

7
Per Unit Example, cont’d

1.00
I   0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8  
    p.u.
2
VL
SL  
VL I L*  0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00  0.2230.8  30.8p.u.
8
Per Unit Example, cont’d

To convert back to actual values just multiply the

per unit values by their per unit base

VLActual
 0.859  30.8  16 kV  13.7  30.8 kV
S LActual  0.1890  100 MVA  18.90 MVA
SGActual  0.2230.8  100 MVA  22.030.8 MVA
100 MVA
I Middle
B   1250 Amps
80 kV
Middle  0.22  30.8  Amps  275  30.8
I Actual
9
Three Phase Per Unit

Procedure is very similar to 1f except we use a 3f

VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
1. Pick a 3f VA base for the entire system, S B3f
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage
level, VB. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base
VB2, LL ( 3 VB , LN ) 2 VB2, LN
ZB   
S B3f 3S 1Bf S 1Bf
Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!
10
Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

4. Calculate the current base, IB

S B3f 3 S 1Bf S 1Bf

I3Bf     I1Bf
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN
Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!
5. Convert actual values to per unit

11
Three Phase Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power

in the previous circuit, assuming a 3f power base of
300 MVA, and line to line voltage bases of 13.8 kV,
138 kV and 27.6 kV (square root of 3 larger than the
1f example voltages). Also assume the generator is
Y-connected so its line to line voltage is 13.8 kV.

Convert to per unit

as before. Note the
system is exactly the
same!

12
3f Per Unit Example, cont'd
1.00
I   0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8  
    p.u.
2
VL
SL  
VL I L*  0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00  0.2230.8  30.8p.u.

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

13
3f Per Unit Example, cont'd
Differences appear when we convert back to actual values

V LActual  0.859  30.8  27.6 kV  23.8  30.8 kV

S LActual  0.1890  300 MVA  56.70 MVA
SGActual  0.2230.8  300 MVA  66.030.8 MVA
300 MVA
I Middle
B   1250 Amps (same current!)
3 138 kV
Middle  0.22  30.8   Amps  275  30.8
I Actual

14
3f Per Unit Example 2
•Assume a 3f load of 100+j50 MVA with VLL of 69
kV is connected to a source through the below
network:

What is the supply current and complex power?

Answer: I=467 amps, S = 103.3 + j76.0 MVA
15
Per Unit Change of MVA Base

• Parameters for equipment are often given using

power rating of equipment as the MVA base
• To analyze a system all per unit data must be on a
common power base
Z OriginalBase
pu  Z actual  Z NewBase
pu
2 2
Vbase Vbase
Hence ZOriginalBase
pu  OriginalBase
/ NewBase
 Z pu
NewBase
S Base S Base
NewBase
S Base
OriginalBase
Z pu  OriginalBase
 NewBase
Z pu
S Base
16
Per Unit Change of Base Example

•A 54 MVA transformer has a leakage reactance of

3.69%. What is the reactance on a 100 MVA base?

100
X e  0.0369   0.0683 p.u.
54

17
Transformer Reactance

• Transformer reactance is often specified as a

percentage, say 10%. This is a per unit value
(divide by 100) on the power base of the
transformer.
• Example: A 350 MVA, 230/20 kV transformer has
leakage reactance of 10%. What is p.u. value on
100 MVA base? What is value in ohms (230 kV)?
100
X e  0.10   0.0286 p.u.
350
2
230
0.0286   15.1 
100
18
Three Phase Transformers

• There are 4 different ways to connect 3f

transformers
Y-Y D-D

Usually 3f transformers are constructed so all windings

share a common core
19
3f Transformer Interconnections

D-Y Y-D

20
Y-Y Connection

Magnetic coupling with An/an, Bn/bn & Cn/cn

VAn VAB IA 1
 a,  a, 
Van Vab Ia a
21
Y-Y Connection: 3f Detailed Model

22
Y-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis of Y-Y connections is exactly the

same as analysis of a single phase transformer.
Y-Y connections are common in transmission systems.
Key advantages are the ability to ground each side
and there is no phase shift is introduced.
23
D-D Connection

Magnetic coupling with AB/ab, BC/bb & CA/ca

VAB I AB 1 I A 1
 a,  , 
Vab I ab a I a a

24
D-D Connection: 3f Detailed Model

To use the per phase equivalent we need to use

the delta-wye load transformation
25
D-D Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis similar to Y-Y except impedances

are decreased by a factor of 3.

Key disadvantage is D-D connections can not be

grounded; not commonly used.
26
D-Y Connection

Magnetic coupling with AB/an, BC/bn & CA/cn

27
D-Y Connection V/I Relationships
VAB VAB
 a,  Van  Vab  3 Van30
Van a
VAB 30 VAn30
Hence Vab  3 and Van  3
a a
For current we get
I AB 1
  I a  a I AB
I ab a
1
I A  3 I AB   30  I AB  I A30
3
1
 a  a I A30
3
28
D-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Note: Connection introduces a 30 degree phase shift!

Common for transmission/distribution step-down since
there is a neutral on the low voltage side.
Even if a = 1 there is a sqrt(3) step-up ratio

29
Y-D Connection: Per Phase Model

Exact opposite of the D-Y connection, now with a

phase shift of -30 degrees.

30
Load Tap Changing Transformers

• LTC transformers have tap ratios that can be varied

to regulate bus voltages
• The typical range of variation is 10% from the
nominal values, usually in 33 discrete steps
(0.0625% per step).
• Because tap changing is a mechanical process,
LTC transformers usually have a 30 second
deadband to avoid repeated changes.
• Unbalanced tap positions can cause "circulating
vars"

31
LTCs and Circulating Vars

64 MW
slack
14 Mvar

1 1.00 pu

24.1 MW 40.2 MW
12.8 Mvar 1.7 Mvar

A
1.000 tap
A
1.056 tap
80%
MVA MVA

40.0 MW
24.0 MW -0.0 Mvar
-12.0 Mvar
2 0.98 pu 3 1.05 pu

0.0 Mvar

24 MW 40 MW
12 Mvar 0 Mvar

32
Phase Shifting Transformers

• Phase shifting transformers are used to control the

phase angle across the transformer
– Also called phase angle regulators (PARs) or quadrature
booster transformers
• Since power flow through the transformer depends
upon phase angle, this allows the transformer to
regulate the power flow
through the transformer
• Phase shifters can be used to
prevent inadvertent "loop
flow" and to prevent line overloads.
Image Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature_booster#/media/File:Qb-3ph.svg
33
Phase Shifter Example 3.13

345.00 kV 341.87 kV
283.9 MW 283.9 MW
39.0 Mvar 6.2 Mvar
500 MW slack

164 Mvar 500 MW

100 Mvar
Phase Shifting Transformer

216.3 MW 216.3 MW
125.0 Mvar 0.0 deg 93.8 Mvar
1.05000 tap

34
Autotransformers

• Autotransformers are transformers in which the

primary and secondary windings are coupled
magnetically and electrically.
• This results in lower cost, and smaller size and
weight.
• The key disadvantage is loss of electrical
isolation between the voltage levels. Hence
auto-transformers are not used when a is large.
For example in stepping down 7160/240 V we do
not ever want 7160 on the low side!

35