Chapter 12

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Chapter 12
Distributed Database
Management Systems
Database Systems:
Design, Implementation, and Management,
Seventh Edition, Rob and Coronel
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In this chapter, you will learn:
• What a distributed database management

system (DDBMS) is and what its components are
• How database implementation is affected by
different levels of data and process distribution
• How transactions are managed in a distributed
database environment
• How database design is affected by the
distributed database environment
Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7th Edition, Rob & Coronel 2
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The Evolution of Distributed Database
Management Systems
• Distributed database management system
(DDBMS)
– Governs storage and processing of logically
related data over interconnected computer
systems in which both data and processing
functions are distributed among several sites
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Management Systems (continued)
• Centralized database required that corporate
data be stored in a single central site
• Dynamic business environment and
centralized database’s shortcomings
spawned a demand for applications based on
data access from different sources at multiple
locations
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DDBMS Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages include:
– Data are located near “greatest demand” site
– Faster data access
– Faster data processing
– Growth facilitation
– Improved communications
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(continued)
• Advantages include (continued):
– Reduced operating costs
– User-friendly interface
– Less danger of a single-point failure
– Processor independence
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(continued)
• Disadvantages include:
– Complexity of management and control
– Security
– Lack of standards
– Increased storage requirements
– Increased training cost
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(continued)
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(continued)
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(continued)
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Characteristics of Distributed
Management Systems
• Application interface
• Validation
• Transformation
• Query optimization
• Mapping
• I/O interface
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• Formatting
• Security
• Backup and recovery
• DB administration
• Concurrency control
• Transaction management
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• Must perform all the functions of centralized
DBMS
• Must handle all necessary functions imposed
by distribution of data and processing
– Must perform these additional functions
transparently to the end user
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DDBMS Components
• Must include (at least) the following

components:
– Computer workstations
– Network hardware and software
– Communications media
– Transaction processor (application processor,
transaction manager)
• Software component found in each computer
that requests data
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DDBMS Components (continued)
• Must include (at least) the following

components (continued):
– Data processor or data manager
• Software component residing on each
computer that stores and retrieves data located
at the site
• May be a centralized DBMS
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DDBMS Components (continued)
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Levels of Data and Process Distribution
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Single-Site Processing,
Single-Site Data (SPSD)
• All processing is done on single CPU or host
computer (mainframe, midrange, or PC)
• All data are stored on host computer’s local
disk
• Processing cannot be done on end user’s
side of system
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Single-Site Data (SPSD) (continued)
• Typical of most mainframe and midrange
computer DBMSs
• DBMS is located on host computer, which is
accessed by dumb terminals connected to it
• Also typical of first generation of single-user
microcomputer databases
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Single-Site Data (SPSD) (continued)
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Multiple-Site Processing,
Single-Site Data (MPSD)
• Multiple processes run on different computers
sharing single data repository
• MPSD scenario requires network file server
running conventional applications that are
accessed through LAN
• Many multiuser accounting applications,
running under personal computer network, fit
such a description
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Single-Site Data (MPSD) (continued)
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Multiple-Site Data (MPMD)
• Fully distributed database management
system with support for multiple data
processors and transaction processors at
multiple sites
• Classified as either homogeneous or
heterogeneous
• Homogeneous DDBMSs
– Integrate only one type of centralized DBMS
over a network
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Multiple-Site Data (MPMD) (continued)
• Heterogeneous DDBMSs
– Integrate different types of centralized DBMSs
over a network
• Fully heterogeneous DDBMS
– Support different DBMSs that may even
support different data models (relational,
hierarchical, or network) running under
different computer systems, such as
mainframes and microcomputers
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Multiple-Site Data (MPMD) (continued)
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Distributed Database
Transparency Features
• Allow end user to feel like database’s only
user
• Features include:
– Distribution transparency
– Transaction transparency
– Failure transparency
– Performance transparency
– Heterogeneity transparency
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Distribution Transparency
• Allows management of physically dispersed

database as though it were a centralized
database
• Following three levels of distribution
transparency are recognized:
– Fragmentation transparency
– Location transparency
– Local mapping transparency
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Distribution Transparency (continued)
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Distribution Transparency (continued)
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Transaction Transparency
• Ensures database transactions will maintain

distributed database’s integrity and
consistency
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Distributed Requests and Distributed
Transactions
• Distributed transaction
– Can update or request data from several
different remote sites on network
• Remote request
– Lets single SQL statement access data to be
processed by single remote database
processor
• Remote transaction
– Accesses data at single remote site
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Transactions (continued)
• Distributed transaction
– Allows transaction to reference several
different (local or remote) DP sites
• Distributed request
– Lets single SQL statement reference data
located at several different local or remote DP
sites
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Distributed Concurrency Control
• Multisite, multiple-process operations are

much more likely to create data
inconsistencies and deadlocked transactions
than are single-site systems
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Distributed Concurrency Control
(continued)
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Two-Phase Commit Protocol
• Distributed databases make it possible for

transaction to access data at several sites
• Final COMMIT must not be issued until all
sites have committed their parts of
transaction
• Two-phase commit protocol requires each
individual DP’s transaction log entry be
written before database fragment is actually
updated
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Performance Transparency
and Query Optimization
• Objective of query optimization routine is to
minimize total cost associated with execution
of request
• Costs associated with request are function of:
– Access time (I/O) cost
– Communication cost
– CPU time cost
• Must provide distribution transparency as well
as replica transparency
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Performance Transparency
and Query Optimization (continued)
• Replica transparency
– DDBMS’s ability to hide existence of multiple
copies of data from user
• Query optimization techniques include:
– Manual or automatic
– Static or dynamic
– Statistically based or rule-based algorithms
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Distributed Database Design
• Data fragmentation
– How to partition database into fragments
• Data replication
– Which fragments to replicate
• Data allocation
– Where to locate those fragments and replicas
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Data Fragmentation
• Breaks single object into two or more

segments or fragments
• Each fragment can be stored at any site over
computer network
• Information about data fragmentation is
stored in distributed data catalog (DDC), from
which it is accessed by TP to process user
requests
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Data Fragmentation (continued)
• Strategies
– Horizontal fragmentation
• Division of a relation into subsets (fragments) of
tuples (rows)
– Vertical fragmentation
• Division of a relation into attribute (column)
subsets
– Mixed fragmentation
• Combination of horizontal and vertical
strategies
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Data Replication
• Storage of data copies at multiple sites

served by computer network
• Fragment copies can be stored at several
sites to serve specific information
requirements
– Can enhance data availability and response
time
– Can help to reduce communication and total
query costs
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Data Replication (continued)
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• Replication scenarios
– Fully replicated database
• Stores multiple copies of each database
fragment at multiple sites
• Can be impractical due to amount of overhead
– Partially replicated database
• Stores multiple copies of some database
fragments at multiple sites
• Most DDBMSs are able to handle the partially
replicated database well
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• Replication scenarios (continued)

– Unreplicated database
• Stores each database fragment at single site
• No duplicate database fragments
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Data Allocation
• Deciding where to locate data

• Allocation strategies
– Centralized data allocation
• Entire database is stored at one site
– Partitioned data allocation
• Database is divided into several disjointed parts
(fragments) and stored at several sites
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Data Allocation (continued)
• Allocation strategies (continued)

– Replicated data allocation
• Copies of one or more database fragments are
stored at several sites
• Data distribution over computer network is

achieved through data partition, data
replication, or combination of both
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Client/Server vs. DDBMS
• Way in which computers interact to form

system
• Features user of resources, or client, and
provider of resources, or server
• Can be used to implement a DBMS in which
client is the TP and server is the DP
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Client/Server vs. DDBMS (continued)
• Client/server advantages
– Less expensive than alternate minicomputer
or mainframe solutions
– Allow end user to use microcomputer’s GUI,
thereby improving functionality and simplicity
– More people in job market have PC skills than
mainframe skills
– PC is well established in workplace
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• Client/server advantages (continued)

– Numerous data analysis and query tools exist
to facilitate interaction with DBMSs available in
PC market
– Considerable cost advantage to offloading
applications development from mainframe to
powerful PCs
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• Client/server disadvantages
– Creates more complex environment
• Different platforms (LANs, operating systems,
and so on) are often difficult to manage
– An increase in number of users and
processing sites often paves the way for
security problems
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• Client/server disadvantages (continued)

– Possible to spread data access to much wider
circle of users
• Increases demand for people with broad
knowledge of computers and software
• Increases burden of training and cost of
maintaining the environment
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C. J. Date’s Twelve Commandments for
Distributed Databases
• Local site independence
• Central site independence
• Failure independence
• Location transparency
• Fragmentation transparency
• Replication transparency
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C. J. Date’s Twelve Commandments for
Distributed Databases (continued)
• Distributed query processing
• Distributed transaction processing
• Hardware independence
• Operating system independence
• Network independence
• Database independence
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Summary
• Distributed database stores logically related data in

two or more physically independent sites connected
via computer network
• Distributed processing is division of logical database
processing among two or more network nodes
• Distributed databases require distributed processing
• Main components of DDBMS are transaction
processor and data processor
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Summary (continued)
• Current database systems can be classified

by extent to which they support processing
and data distribution
• Homogeneous distributed database system
integrates only one particular type of DBMS
over computer network
• Heterogeneous distributed database system
integrates several different types of DBMSs
over computer network
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Summary (continued)
• DDBMS characteristics are best described as set of

transparencies
• Transaction is formed by one or more database
requests
• Distributed concurrency control is required in network
of distributed databases
• Distributed DBMS evaluates every data request to
find optimum access path in distributed database
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Summary (continued)
• The design of distributed database must

consider fragmentation and replication of data
• Database can be replicated over several
different sites on computer network
• Client/server architecture refers to way in
which two computers interact over computer
network to form a system

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Chapter 12

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12

In this chapter, you will learn:

• What a distributed database management

DDBMS Advantages and Disadvantages

• Must include (at least) the following

DDBMS Components (continued)

• Must include (at least) the following

DDBMS Components (continued)

Levels of Data and Process Distribution

• Allows management of physically dispersed

Distribution Transparency (continued)

Distribution Transparency (continued)

• Ensures database transactions will maintain

Distributed Concurrency Control

• Multisite, multiple-process operations are

Two-Phase Commit Protocol

• Distributed databases make it possible for

Distributed Database Design

• Breaks single object into two or more

Data Fragmentation (continued)

Data Fragmentation (continued)

Data Fragmentation (continued)

Data Fragmentation (continued)

Data Fragmentation (continued)

Data Fragmentation (continued)

Data Fragmentation (continued)

Data Fragmentation (continued)

• Storage of data copies at multiple sites

Data Replication (continued)

Data Replication (continued)

Data Replication (continued)

• Replication scenarios (continued)

• Deciding where to locate data

Data Allocation (continued)

• Allocation strategies (continued)

• Data distribution over computer network is

Client/Server vs. DDBMS

• Way in which computers interact to form

Client/Server vs. DDBMS (continued)

Client/Server vs. DDBMS (continued)

• Client/server advantages (continued)

Client/Server vs. DDBMS (continued)

Client/Server vs. DDBMS (continued)

• Client/server disadvantages (continued)

• Distributed database stores logically related data in

• Current database systems can be classified

• DDBMS characteristics are best described as set of

• The design of distributed database must

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