Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2017
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
• Homogeneous
– Properties same at every
point
• Heterogeneous
– Properties different at every
point
• Isotropic
– Properties same in every
direction
• Anisotropic
– Properties different in different
directions
• Often results from stratification
during sedimentation
K horizontal K vertical
www.usgs.gov
Homogeniety means single constant
value independent of space
Reservoir Heterogeneity
Lateral 2 , k2
1 , k1
5 , k5
3 , k3 4 , k4
1 , k1
2 , k2
Vertical (Layer)
3 , k3
4 , k4
5 , k5
Flow Unit Geometry and Heterogeneity
• Thickness, lateral extent and geometry are deduced from
heterogeneity and outcrop studies
• Statistical correlations relate lateral dimensions to thickness
Reservoir Heterogenity Type
SWO Matoa Klalin
Kasim
Walio
Microfacies of Kais Carbonate Reservoirs
Heterogeneity as a Function of Scale
Vertical Heterogeneity Seismic Scale
Vertical Heterogeneity Log Scale
Vertical Heterogeneity Core Scale
Limestone's μ–CT data: example of one 2D slice (a) and its corresponded profile
(b) and 3D model (c), for limestone 1 (I), limestone 2 (II) and limestone 3 (II).
Lateral Heterogeneity
w x
i 1
i i
w
i 1
i
-Median: Observation in a set that divides the set so that the same number of
observations lie on each side of it.
- Mode: Observation that occurs with the greatest frequency
STATISTICS
• Measures of Dispersion
SS (x i x )2
- Variance: The average of square differences between observations and their mean
1 n
1 N s ( xi x) 2
2
2
N
(x
i 1
i ) 2 (Population Variance) n i 1 (Sample Variance)
N
1
- Covariance: For a bivariated distribution Co
N
(x
i 1
i x ) * ( yi y )
STATISTICS
Probability
Type of Events:
1. Exhaustive: two or more events are said to be exhaustive if all possible outcomes
are considered. p (A y B) = 1
2. Mutually exclusive: Events that cannot occur simultaneously.
p (A y B) = 0, p (A o B ) = p(A) + p(B)
3. Non mutually exclusive: Events that can occur simultaneously.
p (A o B ) = p(A) + p(B) – p(A y B)
4. Independent: Events whose probability is unaffected by occurrence or
non occurrence of each other
5. Dependent: Events whose probability changes depending upon the occurrence
of each other
STATISTICS
Histogram
Is an easy way to analyze the data. In this example the sample is divided in classes,
where a class is defined as a range of values. The number of measures that fall in
a class is called Class Frequency and the graph is called Histogram. The addition of
frequencies represents the cumulative frequency.
0.015 1 0.01
0.030 6 0.05
0.045 13 0.14
0.060 20 0.28
0.075 11 0.35
0.090 4 0.38
0.105 6 0.42
0.120 16 0.53
0.135 12 0.62
0.150 22 0.77
0.165 19 0.90
0.180 9 0.97
And
greater
... 5 1.00
STATISTICS
One of the most famous cdf in geology is this figure that shows the distribution of shale
Lengths in various geological environments.
STATISTICS
• Probability Density function (pdf):
We consider next the probability distribution (or density) function or pdf, probably the
most familiar way of presenting the distribution of a random variable. This forms the basis
for interpreting f(x) as a probability of a value of x in the neighbourhood of x.
A typical continuous pdf is shown below
Specific Distributions - There are more than 100 probability distribution functions observed
in nature. We deal with only a few of these. When we speak of a frequency or probability
distribution function (a pdf or histogram) the first thing that naturally comes to mind is the
normal distribution in which a variable x is distributed with probability f according to the
normal distribution .
STATISTICS
• Probability Density function (pdf) for normal distribution:
The quantities and are the mean and standard deviation of the distribution; this is a
two parameter distribution since it can be completely specified with only and . The
normal distribution is also known as a Gaussian distribution.
STATISTICS
Valores Z para Distribucion Normal
Desv Std Probabilidad Desv Std Probabilidad
desde el promedio Acumulada desde el promedio Acumulada
z
1 2
F (z )
-3.0 0.0014 0.0 0.5000
-2.9 0.0019 0.1 0.5398 z
e 2 dz
2p
-2.8 0.0026 0.2 0.5793
-2.7
-2.6
0.0035
0.0047
0.3
0.4
0.6179
0.6554
-2.5 0.0062 0.5 0.6915
-2.4 0.0082 0.6 0.7257
-2.3 0.0107 0.7 0.7580
-2.2 0.0139 0.8 0.7881
-2.1 0.0179 0.9 0.8159 Z is called a unit normal
-2.0 0.0228 1.0 0.8413
-1.9 0.0287 1.1 0.8643
variable with mean of zero and
-1.8 0.0359 1.2 0.8849 a variance of one.
-1.7 0.0446 1.3 0.9032
-1.6 0.0548 1.4 0.9192
-1.5 0.0668 1.5 0.0332
-1.4 0.0808 1.6 0.9452
(x )
-1.3 0.0968 1.7 0.9554
z
-1.2 0.1151 1.8 0.9641
-1.1 0.1357 1.9 0.9713
-1.0 0.1587 2.0 0.9773
-0.9 0.1841 2.1 0.9821
-0.8 0.2119 2.2 0.9861
-0.7 0.2420 2.3 0.9893
-0.6 0.2743 2.4 0.9918
-0.5 0.3085 2.5 0.9938
-0.4 0.3346 2.6 0.9953
-0.3 0.3821 2.7 0.9965
-0.2 0.4207 2.8 0.9974
-0.1 0.5602 2.9 0.9981
0.0 0.5000 3.0 0.9987
STATISTICS
The normal distribution is rather uncommon in nature. For example, while porosity
seems to be reasonably normally distributed, permeability distributes in a manner far
removed from the symmetry demanded by the normal distribution. Permeability
seems to be distributed commonly as log-normal. The following figure shows both
the cdf and pdf for a log-normal distribution
The variable X being characterized cannot be less than zero. There are a few very large
values of X; most of the values are small. Because of this the mode (the most likely
value) is less than the median which is less than the mean.
STATISTICS AND GEOSTATISTICS
Heterogeneity
1. Static
Coefficient of variation
Dykstra-Parsons coefficient
Lorenz coefficient
2. Dynamic
Channeling factors
Dispersivities
STATISTICS AND GEOSTATISTICS
The most direct measure of heterogeneity is the variance and standard deviation
The standard deviation is, of course, the positive square root of the variance.
Both quantities have units but the coefficient of variation, CF, does not.
Layer-Heterogeneity Coefficients
Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient
10000
1000
V DP = 0.84
100
k/Phie
10
0.1
1 2 5 10 20 30 50 70 80 90 95 98 99
Procedure
• Arrange permeability (k) values in descending
order
1000
100
Percent Greater
Permeability Than
md
10
50% 84.1%
1
2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 98
% Greater Than
Both of the above equations have been implemented into this routine.
The significance of the Log(k) at a probability value of 84.1% is that it is
the equivalent of one standard deviation away from the 50% probability value
assuming a log normal distribution (which permeability distributions often
displays this characteristic).
In 1950, Schmalz and Rahme proposed a single term for characterizing the
permeability distribution within a pay section. Referring to the chart below,
they defined the Lorenz coefficient of heterogeneity as the (area between the
green curve and the red curve) / (area between the red curve and the X axis).
Dykstra-Parsons
coefficient
VDP = (1.15 – 0.21)/1.15 0.50. 0.841
= 0.82 Cc
Heterogeneity of Various Rocks
Coefficient of variation:
Cv = Standard deviation / Mean value