Chapter 5

SCALES

The proportion by which the drawing of a given object is enlarged or reduced is

called the scale of the drawing.

The scale of a drawing is indicated by a ratio, called the Representative Fraction

(RF) or Scale Factor. RF is a ratio of the length of an object on a drawing to the
actual length of the object.
i.e., RF = (Length on drawing)/(Actual length)

The terms ‘scale’ and ‘RF’ are synonymous. The scale is most commonly expressed
in the format X :Y while RF is expressed in the format X/Y.
Enlarging or Enlargement Scales
When smaller objects are to be drawn, they often need to be enlarged. The scales
used in such cases are called enlarging scales. Obviously, the length of an object on
the drawing is more than the corresponding actual length of the object. Enlarging
scales are mentioned in the format X : 1, where X is greater than 1. Clearly, RF > 1.
Enlarging scales are used for objects like screws and gears used in small electronic
gadgets, wristwatch parts, resistors, transistors, ICs.

Reducing or Reduction Scales

When huge objects are to be drawn, they are reduced in size on the drawing. The
scales used for these objects are called reducing scales. It is clear that the length of
the object on the drawing is less than the actual length of the object. Reducing
scales are mentioned in the format 1 :Y, where Y is greater than 1. Hence, RF < 1.
Objects like multistoreyed buildings, bridges, boilers, huge machinery, ships,
aeroplanes, etc., are drawn to reducing scales.
Full Scale
When an object is drawn on the sheet to its actual size, it is said to be drawn to full
scale. As the length on the drawing is equal to the actual length of the object, the full
scale is expressed as 1:1. Obviously, for full scale, RF = 1.

TYPES OF SCALES
An engineer has to precisely show very large distances on a drawing sheet while
planning big projects. This is especially needed for surveying, planning and mapping
of civil engineering projects like constructions of bridges, dams, roads and railways.
A very high level of precision and accuracy cannot be achieved by using ordinary
enlarging or reducing scales. For example, to show a distance of 593 km on a scale of
RF = 1/107, we need to draw a line that is 5.93 cm long. It is not possible to show this
distance precisely since an ordinary measuring rule is capable of measuring up to 0.1
cm (or 0.05 cm in some cases). Often an engineer has to compare distances measured
in different systems of units or find out the distance exactly equivalent to a
particular distance measured in some other unit. Both these difficulties can be
overcome by using special types of engineering scales. These scales enable not only to
set off the required distances and angles precisely on a drawing sheet but also to
compare lengths measured in different units.
The following scales are used by engineers:
1. Plain Scales 2. Vernier Scales
3. Diagonal Scales 4. Comparative or Corresponding Scales
5. Scale of Chords

CONSTRUCTION OF SCALES : GENERAL PROCEDURE

All the scales (except the scale of chords) are constructed by drawing a line of
length equivalent to the actual distance to be represented. This length is called
length of scale (LOS). LOS is calculated by the formula
LOS = RF ¥ Maximum distance to be represented
LOS is usually calculated in terms of centimetre or millimetre. If the maximum
distance to be represented is not known, it may be taken equal to the maximum
measurement (rounded off to the higher whole number) to be made with the help
of the scale.
The general procedure to construct the scales (except the scale of chords) is explained
below.
1. Calculate RF, if not given.
2. Calculate LOS.
3. Draw a line = LOS. Divide this line into the required number of equal parts. The
divisions thus obtained are called main divisions. Each main division will indicate
the main unit of measurement, say metre.
4. Mark zero (0) at the end of the first main division. Number the main divisions
rightward from zero.
5. Divide the first main division into the required number of equal parts. The
subdivisions thus obtained will indicate subunits of the main unit, say decimetre.
Number the subdivisions leftward from zero.
PLAIN SCALES
A plain scale is used to indicate the distances in a unit and its immediate
subdivision, e.g. m and dm, or yards and feet.
Example 5.1 Construct a plain scale of RF = 1/100 to read metres and decimetres
and long enough to measure 10 metres. Show a distance of 7.6 metres on it.
Solution RF = 1 _
100
LOS = RF x maximum distance to be measured
= 1 x (10 x 100) cm = 10 cm
100
Refer Fig. 5.1.
Draw a 10 cm long line. Divide it into 10 equal parts. Each main division will
indicate 1 metre. Mark zero (0) at the end of the first main division and number
the main divisions on the right of zero as 1, 2, 3, …, 9. Now, divide the first main
division into 10 equal parts. Each subdivision will represent 1 decimetre. Number
the subdivisions on the left of zero as 1, 2, 3 …, 10. The distance of 7.6 metres can
be shown in 5.7 two parts, i.e., 7 metre + 0.6 metre. 7 metre is shown on the main
divisions and 0.6 metre (i.e., 6 decimetres) on the subdivisions.
VERNIER SCALES
A vernier scale is used to indicate the distances in a unit and its immediate two
subdivisions, e.g., m, dm and cm or yards. A vernier scale consists of two parts—a
main scale and a vernier. The main scale is similar to a plain scale. It shows length
in a unit and its immediate subunit. The vernier is an auxiliary scale constructed
above the first main division of the main scale. Its length is either more or less by a
fixed amount than that of a main division. A subdivision on the main scale is called
a main scale division (MSD), and that on the vernier scale is called a vernier scale
division (VSD). LC is the minimum length that can be measured precisely by a
given vernier scale.
LC = MSD – VSD (if MSD > VSD)
= VSD – MSD (if VSD > MSD)
There are two types of vernier scales:
(i) Forward vernier or Direct vernier
(ii) Backward vernier or Retrograde vernier
Forward Vernier Scales
If MSD > VSD then the vernier scale is called a forward vernier scale. Obviously,
LC = MSD – VSD.

Backward Vernier Scales

If VSD > MSD then the vernier scale is called a backward vernier scale. The LC is
obtained by the relation LC = VSD – MSD.
Example 5.6 On a map, the distance of 11 kilometres is shown by a 22 cm long line.
Find the RF. Construct the forward vernier scale and backward vernier scale of
this RF to read decametres and measure up to 4 kilometres. On both the scales,
show the following distances: (i) 0.35 km (ii) 1.19 km (iii) 2.57 km.
Solution 22cm 22 1
RF   
11km (11x1000x100) 50000

 1 
 LOS    X4X1000X100  8CM
 50000 
(a) Forward Vernier Scale
Refer Fig. 5.6(a).
Construct the main scale as shown. Divide the LOS into 4 equal parts to show 1
kilometre by one division. Each main division is then divided into 10 equal parts to
represent 1 hectometre.
MSD = 1 hm
LC = 1 dam = 1/10 MSD
LC = MSD – VSD
1/10 MSD = MSD – VSD
i.e. 10 VSD = 9 MSD
 Length of vernier = 9 MSD
Construct a vernier of length = 9 MSD above the first main division of the
main scale as shown. Divide the vernier length into 10 equal parts so that
each VSD will represent 0.9 hm = 9 dam. Number the VSDs as shown.
To Show the Distances
Split up the given distances into two parts as shown below:
(i) 0.35 km = 0.45 km – 0.1 km
(ii) 1.19 km = 0.09 km + 1.1 km
(iii) 2.57 km = 0.27 km + 2.3 km
Note that the first part of each distance is in the multiple of 0.09 km, i.e., LC. On
the scale, mark each part, adjoining to other, between appropriate
divisions/subdivisions so that their addition or subtraction will give the required
distance.
(b) Backward Vernier Scale
Refer Fig. 5.6(b).
The main scale is constructed in the same way as that in the forward vernier scale.
The numbering is done as explained in Example 5.5(b).
LC = VSD – MSD
i.e,. 1/10 MSD = VSD – MSD
i.e., 10 VSD = 11 MSD
 Vernier length = 11 MSD
Draw a vernier of length = 11 MSD and divide it into 10 equal parts so that each
VSD = 1.1 hm = 11 dam. Number the VSDs as shown.
To Show the Distances Split up the given distances as shown below:
(i) 0.35 km = 0.55 km – 0.2 km
(ii) 1.19 km = 0.99 km + 0.2 km
(iii) 2.57 km = 0.77 km + 1.8 km
The first part of each distance is always the multiple of 0.11 km. Here also, the two
parts of eachdistance are shown adjoining to each other.
DIAGONAL SCALES
Diagonal scale is used to indicate the distances in a unit and its immediate two
subdivisions. The diagonal scales are better than vernier scales—any distance can
be measured easily on them.
A diagonal scale consists of a plain scale and a diagonal construction.

Principle of Diagonal Scale

The construction of a diagonal scale is based on the principle of similarity of
triangles. Let line AB represent any length, say 1 cm, Fig. 5.8. To divide line AB
into 10 equal parts, draw a line BC, of any length, perpendicular to AB and
complete the rectangle ABCD. Draw diagonal BD. Now divide BC into 10 equal
parts. Through 1, 2, 3, …, 9, draw lines parallel to AB intersecting BD at 1’, 2’, 3’,
…, 9’ respectively. From the geometry of the figure, it is clear that triangles B–1–
1’, B–2–2’, B–3–3’, …, BCD are similar triangles.
As B–5 = ½(BC ), 5–5’ = ½(AB )
Similarly 1–1’ = 0.1(AB ), 2–2’ = 0.2(AB), 3–3’ = 0.3(AB ), and so on.
Example 5.8 Construct a diagonal scale of RF = 2/125 and LC of 1 centimetre.
Show the lengths of 5.99 metres, 3.31 metres and 2.7 decimetres on it.
Solution In this example, the maximum distance to be measured is not given.
Therefore, we will round off the maximum distance to be shown on this scale to
next whole number, i.e., 6 metres.
  2 
LOS    x6x100  9.6cm
 125 
Refer Fig. 5.9.
Draw a line AB = 9.6 cm and divide it into 6 equal parts so that each division will
represent 1 metre. Mark zero at the end of the 1st division and number the
remaining divisions as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Divide the first division into 10 equal parts
so that each subdivision will show 1 decimetre. Number the subdivisions leftward
as 1, 2, 3, …, 10. To obtain the LC of 1 cm, we need to divide each subdivision into
10 equal parts. This is achieved by diagonal construction explained below.
Through A, erect a vertical line AD of any suitable length. Complete rectangle
ABCD. Draw vertical lines through each division. Divide AD into 10 equal vertical
divisions and number them as 1, 2, 3, …, 10, starting from A and ending at D.
Through all these divisions, draw horizontal lines ending on BC. Now join the 10th
vertical division (i.e., D) with the 9th horizontal subdivision. Through all remaining
horizontal subdivisions, draw lines parallel to diagonal D–9 as shown.
Note that D0– EF can be compared to D BCD in Fig. 5.8. Obviously, each
horizontal line within D0– EF will be 0.1 dm (i.e., 1 cm) longer than the
horizontal line below it. For example, the lengths GH and IJ will be equal to 0.9
dm and 0.4 dm respectively.
To Show the Distances
i. 5.99 metres, i.e., 5 metres 9 decimetres and 9 centimetres
Look at the 5 m division (i.e., 5th main division), 9 dm division (i.e., 9th
horizontal division) and 9 cm division (i.e., 9th vertical division). Locate point P
where the vertical through the 5 m division meets the horizontal through the 9
cm division and locate point Q where the diagonal through the 9 dm division
meets the same horizontal. The length PQ represents 5.99 metres.
ii. 3.31 metres, i.e., 3 metres, 3 decimetres and 1 centimetre
Look at the 3 m division, 3 dm division and 1 cm division. Locate point R at the
intersection of vertical through the 3 m division and horizontal through the 1
cm division. Locate point S at the intersection of the diagonal through the 3 dm
division and the horizontal through the 1 cm division. The length RS = 3.31
metres.
iii. 2.7 decimetres, i.e., 0 metre, 2 decimetres and 7 centimetres
Look at the 0 m division, 2 dm division and 7 cm division. Mark points T and U
respectively where the vertical through 0 m division meets the horizontal
through 7 cm division and diagonal through the 2 dm division meets to the
same horizontal. TU = 2.7 decimetres.
COMPARATIVE OR CORRESPONDING SCALES
Comparative scales consist of two scales of the same RF, constructed separately or
one above the other. These scales are used to compare the distances expressed in
different systems of unit; e.g., kilometres and miles, centimetres and inches, etc.

Example 5.14 Construct the vernier comparative scales to read up to a single

kilometre and mile and long enough to measure 600 kilometres and 400 miles.
Take scale factor as 1:3000000. Show on the scale, a length of 457 km, and its
equivalent distance in miles.
1 mile = 1.61 kilometres
Solution We have to construct two vernier scales: kilometre scale and mile scale.
(a) Kilometre Scale
Refer Fig. 5.15(a).
1
LOS   600  1000  100  20cm
3000000
Draw a 20 cm long line and construct a vernier scale as shown. Note that LC =
VSD – MSD = (110/10) – (100/10) = 1 km.
The distance of 457 km (= PQ) is marked on the scale.
(b) Mile Scale
Refer Fig. 5.15(b).
1
LOS   400  1.61  1000  100  22.5cm
3000000
Draw a 21.5 cm long line and construct a vernier scale as shown. In this case, LC =
(110/10) – (100/10) = 1 mile.
To show a distance equivalent to 457 km on the mile scale, locate points P’ and Q’
above it such that P’Q’ = PQ and the verticals through P’ and Q’ coincide exactly
with an MSD and a VSD respectively. The distance represented by P’Q’ is the
distance in miles equivalent to 457 km, i.e., 284 miles.
SCALE OF CHORDS
The scale of chords is used to set off or measure angles without the aid of a
protractor.
The construction of a scale of chords is very simple. See Fig. 5.17.
1. Draw a line AO of any suitable length.
2. At O, erect a perpendicular OB such that OB = OA.
3. With O as centre, draw an arc AB.
4. Divide the arc AB into 9 equal parts in the following way:
(i) On arc AB, mark off two arcs with centres A and B and radius = AO. This
will divide arc AB into three equal parts.
(ii) Divide each of these three parts into three more equal parts by the trial-
and-error method.
Thus, a total of 9 divisions can be obtained on the arc AB. Number these
divisions as 10, 20, 30, …, 80.
5. Transfer all the divisions on the arc to the line AO produced by drawing the
arcs with A as a centre and radii equal to chords A–10, A–20, A–30, …, AB.
Note that B is transferred to C on AO produced.
6. Construct the Linear Degree Scale by drawing the rectangle below AC. Distinctly
mark the divisions in the rectangle. Mark zero (0) below A and number the
divisions subsequently as 10°, 20°, 30°, … 90°. Each division on the linear degree
scale may be divided into two parts to read degrees in the multiple of 5°. The angles
can be measured to 1° by dividing each division into 10 parts on a comparatively
longer degree scale.
Example 5.16 Construct the angles of 25°, 53° and 125° by an aid of the scale of
chords.
Solution Refer Fig. 5.18.
Draw any line PQ and mark point O anywhere on it. With O as centre and OA
(from the scale of chords, Fig. 5.21) as a radius, draw a semicircle AC.
i. Angle 25° With A as centre and radius = 0–25° (from the scale of chords), draw
an arc cutting the semicircle at point D. Join D with O. AOD = 25°.
ii. Angle 53° With A as centre and radius = 0–53° (from the scale of chords), draw
an arc cutting the semicircle at point E. The 53° mark can be obtained on the
linear degree scale by dividing the 50°– 60° division into 10 equal parts. Join E
with O. AOE = 53°.
iii. Angle 125° The angle 125° can be constructed in two ways:
(a) With A as centre and radius = 0–90°, draw an arc cutting the semicircle at
point B. Now, with B as centre and radius equal to 0–35°, mark another point F
on the semicircle. Join F with O. AOF = AOB + BOF = 90° + 35° = 125°.
(b) With C as centre and radius equal to 0–55°, mark point F on the semicircle.
Join F with O. AOF = 180° – COF = 180° – 55° = 125°.
Example 5.17 Measure PQR shown in Fig. 5.19 by means of the scale of chords.
Solution
1. With Q as centre and radius = AO (from the scale of chords, Fig. 5.17), draw
an arc ST cutting PQ at S and RQ at T.
2. Find the length equivalent to the length of the chord ST on the linear degree
scale with the help of a divider, by matching one end at the zero mark, as
shown in Fig. 5.20. The corresponding length 0–48° gives the angle. Thus,
PQR = 48°.