Principles and

Theories Of
Learning and
Motivation
CARLO M. CORNEJO
Progam Head, BSE
 Competencies :
1. Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive,
motivational and socio-cultural factors
that affect learning
2. Organize the learning environment that
promotes fairness regardless of culture,
family background and gender,
responsive to learner’s needs and
difficulties
 Presentation
I. CONTENT UPDATE
II. ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
III. ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS
LEARNING
1.Which of the following is learning?

a. Increase in weight and height

b. writing the letters of the alphabet
c. Feeling dizzy after taking a drug
d. feeling tired after a hard days work
 Learning
 Involves the acquisition of new elements of
knowledge, skills, beliefs, and specific
behavior, may mean one or more of all
these things:
 the act of gaining knowledge ( to learn something), the
knowledge gained by virtue of that act ( that which is
known) the process of gaining knowledge ( learning how)
Banner & Cannon 1997
 It is an on going process of continued adaptation to our
environment, assimilation of new information and
accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge
Theories of Learning
 Learning theories
• They are sets of conjectures and
hypothesis that explain the process of
learning or how learning takes place
 • Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike,
Behaviorist Skinner
Perspective • Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and
Bandura

• Gestalt Psychology
• Information Processing
Cognitive • Gagne’s Conditions of Learning
• Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal
Perspecive Learning/Subsumption Theory
• Bruners Constructivism Theory
• Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism
 Principles of Learning
• Learning by doing is effective than just sitting
and listening
• Concepts should be presented in varied or
different ways
• Learning is aided by formulating and asking
questions
• Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging
• The principle of readiness is related to the
learners’ stage of development
 A. Behavioral/Learning Theory
 It operates on a principle of “Stimulus-
Response”
Prefers to concentrate on actual or
observable behavior
? ? ?
 Edward
Ivan Petrovich Burrhus
Pavlov’s Lee Frederic
Thorndike’s
Classical
Connectionism
Skinner’s
Conditioning Operant
Conditioning
and
Reinforcment
 1. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s Classical
Conditioning

 Classical means “ in the established

manner”
 Individual learns when a previously neutral
stimulus is repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus until a neutral
stimulus evokes a conditioned response
1. Classical conditioning is strengthened or reinforced
when the _____________ follows the
________________.
a. Conditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned stimulus
b. Unconditioned Stimulus, Conditioned Stimulus
c. Unconditioned response, Conditioned Response
d. None of the above
NS

NS
 Features of
• Stimulus- Generalization- responding the
same way to a similar stimuli
• Discrimination- responding differently to
similar but not identical stimuli
• Extinction – a process by which a
coordinated response is lost
1.Extinction in Classical conditioning is also
subject to ______________ of a response
a. Successive approximations
b.spontaneous recovery
c. Shaping
d. Automation
 2. Edward Lee Thorndike’s
Connectionism
 Connectionism means learning by
selecting and connecting
• Puts more emphasis on the organism not
limiting himself to the association between
the stimulus and response
 Thorndike Theory of Learning
1. Law of Readiness – an individual will
learn when she is ready to do so
2. Law of exercise – a connection is
strengthened or weakened depending on
the number of times it occurs and in
proportion to the average vigor and
duration of the connection
2. 2. Law of Exercise
a) Law of use – connections between stimulus
and response are strengthened as they are
used.
b) Law of disuse – connections between a
stimulus and response are weakened when
practice is discontinued
3. Law of Effect – a connection is strengthened
if it produces a satisfying effect
Which of the following principles derived from
Thorndike’s connectionism illustrates the laws of
effect and exercise?
a. Learning requires both practice and rewards.
b. A series of S-R connections can be chained
together if they belong to the same action sequence
c. Transfer of learning occurs because of
previously encountered situations
d. Intelligence is a function of the number of
connections learned.
3. Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning and Reinforcement

 Operant Conditioning – using pleasant or

unpleasant consequences to control the
occurrence of behavior
Reinforcers- any consequence that
strengthen behavior
 Primary reinforcer – related to basic needs
 Secondary reinforcer – value of something
is acquired when associated with a primary
reinforcer
 Positive reinforcer-consequence given to
strengthen a behavior
 Negative reinforcer-release from an
unpleasant situation to strengthen behavior
1.When a reward follows every response, it is
called ?
a. Continuous reinforcement
b. controlled reinforcement
c. Fixed reinforcement
d.Ratio reinforcement
Changing the rules in small steps so that a
student is gradually trained to respond as desired
is called
a. shaping of behavior
b. intermittent reinforcement
c. behavioral chaining
d. reinforcement schedules
 Reinforcement – satisfying
consequence
• Verbal
• Physical
• Non-verbal
• Activity
• Token
• Consumable
 Formula for reinforcement
a) Prompt
b) Response
c) Reinforcement
1.The schedule of reinforcement associated with
playing slot machines and other types of
gambling is _________.
a. Fixed ratio
b. variable ratio
c. Variable interval
d. fixed interval
Edward Tolman’s
Purposive
Behaviorism

Albert Bandura’s
Social/ Observational
Learning Theory
1.According to _________________,
reinforcement is not essential to learning.
a. John B. Watson
b.Edward Tolman
c. E.L. Thorndike
d.A. Bandura
 4. Edward Tolman’s Purposive
Behaviorism
• Goal directedness
• Cognitive Maps
• Latent Learning
• Intervening Variables
Learning is mediated or is influence by
expectations, perceptions, representations, needs
and other internal or environmental
variables. This is the concept of
________________.
a. intervening variable
b. goal directedness
c. intrinsic motivation
d. purposive behaviorism
• An internal representation of relationships is
referred to as a ______________________.
a. schema
b. cognitive map
c. equilibration
d. accommodation
 5. Albert Bandura’s Social/
Observational Learning Theory
Known for his “Bobo doll” experiment
People learn through observation,
simulation, modeling which means
watching (observing), another called a
model and later imitating the model’s
behavior.
Concentrates on the power of example.
• Learner can occur without a change in
behavior
• Cognition plays a role in learning
• Reciprocal causation, the person, the
behavior, and the environment can have
influence on each other
 4 Phases of Observational
Learning
a. Attention – mere exposure does not
ensure acquisition of behavior. Observer
must attend to recognize the distinctive
features of the model’s response.
b. Retention – reproduction of the desired
behavior implies that student symbolically
retains that observed behavior
c. Motor Reproduction Process – after
observation, physical skills and
coordination are needed for reproduction
of behavior learned.
d. Motivational Process – although
observer acquires and retains ability to
perform the modeled behavior, there will
be no overt performance unless
conditions are favorable.
 Models ae classified as:
1. Real life – exemplified by teachers, parents
and significant others
2. Symbolic – presented through oral/written
symbols
3. Representational – presented through audio-
visual measures
1.If a model is successful, rewarded, attractive,
or high in status, his or her behavior is ____
a. Difficult to reproduce
b. Subject to positive transfer
c. Less likely to be attended
d.More likely to be imitated
Cognitive theories and
metacognition
1.Which of the following teaching strategies
develop metacognition?
a. Have students learn study strategies
b. Have students develop questions
c. Have students monitor their own learning and
thinking
d.Help students to know when to ask for help
e. All of the above
- Main focus is on memory (the storage
and retrieval of information)
- Prefer to concentrate on analyzing
cognitive processes
- Believe in the non-observable
behavior
 David Wolfgang Richard Robert Jerome
Ausubel’s Kohlers Atkinson’s Gagnes Bruner’s
Meaningful Insight and Cumulative Discovery
Reception Learning / Richard Learning
Theory Problem- Shiffrins,s
Learning
Solving Information Theory or
Theory Processing Inquiry
Theory Method/
Theory of
Instruction
 1. David Ausubel’s Meaningful
Reception Theory
Meaningful learning occurs when new
experiences are related to what a learner
already knows.
May occur through:
 Reception
 Rote learning
 Discovery learning
 Principles

1 • The most general ideas of a subject

should be presented first and then
progressively differentiated in terms
of detail and specificity.

2 • Instructional materials should attempt

to integrate new material with
previously presented information
through comparisons and cross-
referencing of new and old ideas.
 Purpose
• Helps introduce a new lesson, unit, or course.

• Helps summarize major ideas in new lesson or unit.

• Based on student’s prior knowledge.

• Show similarities between old material and new material.

• Allows student to transfer or apply knowledge.

• Provides for structure for new information.

• Helps teach complex material that is similar to information

learned previously.
The process of meaningful learning
• Ausubel proposed four processes of meaningful
learning:
- Derivative subsumption
- Correlative subsumption
- Superordinate learning
- Combinatorial learning
 Advance organizer
• Advance organizers are used to relate prior
information to new concepts.

• They are part of Ausubel's subsumption

theory that "contends that meaningful
learning and permanent retention of material
is a function of the stability of existing
anchoring ideas" (Applin).

• Can be classified : expository or comparative.

Advanced
Organizers Graphic
Organizers
Expository

Comparative

Narrative

Skimming
for
Information

Nonlinguistic
Representation
2. Jerome Bruner’s Discovery learning
Theory or Inquiry Method/Theory of
Instruction
Posits that learning is more meaningful to
learners when they gave the opportunity to
discover on their own the relationships
among the concepts or to actively search
for a solution to a problem
An approach to instruction through which
students interact with their environment by
exploring and manipulating objects,
wrestling with questions and controversies
or performing experiments. The idea is that
students are more likely to remember
concepts they discover on their own.
Calls his view of learning “instrumental
conceptualism”.
 3. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight
Learning/Problem – Solving Theory
Insight – the capacity to discern the true
nature of situation
- imaginative power to see into and
understand immediately
Gaining insight is a gradual process of
exploring, analyzing, and structuring
perception until a solution is arrived at.
 4. Richard Atkinson’s and Richard
Shiffrin’s Information Processing
Theory
The individual learns when the human mind
takes in information (encoding), performs
operation in it, stores the information
(storage), and retrieves it when needed
(retrieval)
Memory – the ability to store information so
that it can be used at a later time.
 STAGES OF HUMAN
MEMORY
a. Sensory Memory – information stores that
hold an exact cop of stimuli for a very
short period of time.
b. Short Term Memory (STM) – the
information store that retains the
information as we consciously work on it.
Ex. Telephone number
c. Long Term Memory (LTM) – information
store that is permanent
- Minutes to lifetime
- Information on The LTM, if not rehearsed,
can be forgotten through
- Trace decay structure of LTM> episodic,
semantic
Forgetting
The ability to recall (something previously
known) to the mind

Causes of Forgetting
a. Retrieval Failure – forgetting is due to
inability to recall the information.
b. Decay Theory – information stored in
LTM gradually fades when it is not used.
c. Inference Theory – forgetting in LTM is
due to the influence of other learning
Retention – the ability to recall or recognize
what has been learned or experienced.
Interference – the act or an instance of
hindering, obstructing or impeding.

Teacher for Transfer (Gagne)

Transfer – when something previous learned
influences the new material.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Types:
a. Lateral transfer – occurs when the individual is
able to perform a new task about the same
level. (e.g. solving word problems given in text
and later solving a similar problem on the
board).
b. Vertical transfer – occurs when the individual is
able to learn more advanced/complex skills
(e.g. being able to add and multiply; being able
to read and write)
Gagné's theory proposes that there are Nine Essential Steps of Instruction:

1. Gain attention - Present stimulus to ensure reception of instruction.

2. State the learning objective - What will the pupil gain from the instruction?
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning - Ask for recall of existing relevant
knowledge.
4. Present the stimulus - Display the content.
5. Provide learning guidance
6. Elicit performance - Learners respond to demonstrate knowledge.
7. Provide feedback - Give informative feedback on the learner's performance.
8. Assess performance - More performance and more feedback, to reinforce
information.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to other contexts
link
The following statements about social learning
theory are true except…..
A.People can learn by observing behaviors of
others
B.Learning always result in a behavior change
C.Cognition plays a role in learning
D.Reinforcement and punishment have indirect
effects on learning
1.Bruner’s theory on intellectual development
moves from enactive to iconic and symbolic
stages. Applying Bruner’s theory, how should
you teach?
a. Begin with concrete
b.Be interactive in approach
c. Begin with abstract
d. Do direct instruction
The cognitive processes of the human mind is
like the functioning (analogous ) of a
_____________.
A.Calculator B. Computer
C. Television D Camera
Carlo has been staring at a puzzle. He is figuring out
how to solve it and suddenly, an idea flashed in Carlo’s
mind and excitedly he was able to learn how to solve
the puzzle. This exemplifies __________.

A.Metacognition C. Analytical Learning

B.Insight Learning D. Trial and Error
learning
It is sound to encourage students to define terms
in their own words because _______.
A.Defining the terms in their own words helps them
memorize the definition faster
B.Students remember information better when they
mentally process it in some way
C.This is one opportunity to brush up with their English
D.They ought to connect the terms that they learn with
other terms
Select from the following: Write your answer on the blank.
Positive transfer Near transfer
Negative transfer/Specific transfer Far transfer/General
transfer

1.___________ Stephen Covey applied the lesson of Aesop’s

fable of “The Goose That Lays the
Golden Eggs” to managing corporations
2.___________ When students answer types of algebra word
problem in an exam which are similar to
what they had in their seat works
3.___________ Learning Cebuano as a child, the learner now
frequently interchanges the /e/ and /i/ sound
when speaking English.
4.___________ A speaker of Spanish would find it easier to learn
Mexican language than Japanese
Education is the acquisition of the art and
utilization of knowledge. This statement means:

A. A learner’s application of what she has learned is

necessary
B. A learner’s interest in art is commendable
C. A learner’s acquisition of information is sufficient
D. A learner’s acquisition of information is important
 Howard Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences

Kurt Lewins Field Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological

Systems Theory/ Environmental
Contexts

Lev Vygotskys Social

Constructivism
 7.Howard Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences
Intelligence
 refers to general mental ability of a person
 Capacity to resolve problems or to fashion
products that are valued in a more
cultural setting
Achievements
• refers to the previous learning of a person
in a certain subject area
Identifying Multiple Intelligences helps define the
kaleidoscope of strengths within each person.
 Multiple Intelligence
• Capacity of a person to posses and adapt
two or more intelligence
1.According to Howard Gardner’s multiple
Intelligences theory, which of the following is
not measured by traditional IQ tests ?
a. Intrapersonal skills
b. spatial skills
c. logical skills
d. linguistic skills
MI “Pie Arrangement”
(Thomas Armstrong)

Body Word
Smart Smart
Nature Number
Smart Smart
Picture People
Smart Smart
Music Self
Smart Smart
1.The process of problem solving and learning
are highly unique and individual. This
principle means ____________.

a. Students can adapt alternative problem solving

models
b.Students can modify their own personal styles
c. Each student becomes aware of how learning
styles can be changed
d.Each student his/her own distinctive style of
earning and solving problems
Refers to the preferred way an individual
processes information.
a.Multiple Intelligences
b. metacognition
c. dispositions
d. learning style
 8. Kurt Lewins Field Theory

• The behavior of an individual at a given

moment is the result of existing forces
operating simultaneously in his “life space”
• An individual has inner forces and outer
forces that affect his perceptions and also
his learning.
• Inner Forces
- motivation, attitudes, and feelings
• Outer Forces
– Attitude and behavior of the teachers and
classmates
1.Development is the result of the relationships
between people and their environments.

a. Bio-ecological theory
b. Psychosexual theory
c. Psycho-social theory
d.Socio-cultural theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory/
Environmental Contexts
 Learning is greatly affected by the
kind of environment we are in
 Learners are understood within
the context of their environment
 These environmental context are
interrelated
• The environment affects the child
and the child influences the
environment.
 Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Model
 The microsystem - activities and
interactions in the child's immediate
surroundings: parents, school,
friends, etc.
 The mesosystem - relationships
among the entities involved in the
child's microsystem: parents'
interactions with teachers, a school's
interactions with the daycare
provider
 The exosystem - social institutions
which affect children indirectly: the
parents' work settings and policies,
extended family networks, mass
media, community resources
 The macrosystem - broader cultural
values, laws and governmental
resources
 The chronosystem - changes which
occur during a child's life, both
personally, like the birth of a sibling
and culturally, like the Iraqi war.
1. Which of the following Institutions of society
indirectly affect a child’s development?

a. Parent’s workplace
b. Community
c. Family
d. School
1. The difference b/w what the child can
accomplish alone and what he/she can
accomplish with the guidance of the
teacher.
a. Scaffolding
b. Critical support
c. Zone of proximal development
d. MKO assistance
Vygotsky called the process of providing a
temporary framework of supports for learning
new mental abilities
_________________________.
a. Scaffolding
b. Critical support
c. Zone of proximal development
d. d. MKO assistance
Types of Learners/ Perceptual Educational Implications/ Learning
Channel Preferences

1. Auditory Learners - Lecturing

- Songs/ poems

2. Visual Learners - Reading/ responding to visual cues such as

the chalkboard or transparencies
- Textbooks and pictures

3. Tactile – like to manipulate - Hands on or laboratory methods

objects - Tracing diagrams or using texture examples

4. Kinesthetic or whole body - Simulations, exploratory activities and

learners- experiential activities problem solving approach
- Pacing or dancing while learning new
material
 For questions 1-6 choose from the following options
 a – Visual Learners b – Auditory Learners
c - Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
 d – Analytic Learners e – Global learners

1. During a lecture or classroom discussion,

____________ learners often prefer to take detailed
notes to absorb the information.
2. Which group of learners benefits much from hands-
on approach, actively exploring the physical world
around them?
3. They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss.
4. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions.
Talking things through, and listening to what others
have to say.
 For questions 1-6 choose from the following options
 a – Visual Learners b – Auditory Learners
c - Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
 d – Analytic Learners e – Global learners

5. They are more comfortable in a world of

details and hierarchies of information
6. They are the “forest seers” who give attention
only to the overall structure and sometimes
ignore details.
.Learning is influenced by the following
environmental factors except ___________
a. culture
b. technology
c. instructional practices
d. intrinsic motivation.
Motivation
 Motivation
• An internal state or condition (sometimes
described as a need, desire or want) that
serves to activate or energize behavior
and give it direction

Two kinds of Motivation:

1.Extrinsic Motivation
2.Intrinsic Motivation
 Extrinsic Motivation

• when students work hard to win their

parent’s favour, gain teachers’ praise or
earn high grades; their reasons for work
and study lie primarily outside themselves
• Is fuelled by the anticipaton and
expectation of some kind of pay off from
an external source
 Intrinsic Motivation

• when students study because they enjoy

the subject and desire to learn it,
irrespective of the praise won or grades
earned; the reasons for learning reside
primarily inside themselves
• fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions
Indicators of motivated student
• COOPERATES
–A motivated students always
remains cooperative and loyal to
his studies.
–He remains interested and active
in his studies.
–A motivated student always
interested in his task.
Indicators of motivated student
• KEEPS POSITIVES

– Motivation keeps the student in

positive move and trends
– Interest and always remain positives
his efficiency always runs smoothly
– A motivated sutedt does his work
with keen.
1.How can you make students intrinsically
motivated to work?
a. Give tasks that are too easy.
b.Help them in everything that they do.
c. Give varied, novel and complex tasks.
d.Tell them that their task is too difficult
therefore they should do their best.
Indicators of motivated student
• FINISHES TASK IN TIME

– He finishes his task in time with full

confidence and efficiently
– He never feels tiredness and boring
during studies.
– He does his work with willingness and
intelligently.
Indicators of motivated student
• PSYCHOLOGICALLY SOCIALLY

– A motivated student does his work in

willingness and with confidently so he
remains psychologically socially happy.
– He always does his work with
hardworking so he faces less difficulties.
– His accuracy always 100%
 Principles of Motivation
• The environment can be use to focus the
student’s attention on what needs to be
learned
• Incentives motivate learning
• Internal motivation is longer lasting and
more self- directive than is external
motivation, which must be repeatedly
reinforced by praise or concrete rewards
 Principles of Motivation
• Learning is most effective when an
individual is ready to learn, that is when
one want to know something
• Motivation is enhanced by the way in
which the instructional material is
organized
 THEORIES ON FACTORS
AFFECTING MOTIVATION
 What’s our motivation?

.
– Why are some students driven to learn
and persistent when facing challenges and
others give up?

– What are the biggest factors that affect motivation

& how can I adapt my classroom and curriculum
to created a “learning environment”?
1.Which of the following statements describes
an expert learner?
a. Do not examine the quality of their works
b.Attempt to process all information they receive
c. Hurriedly gives a solution to the problem
d.Maintain quality output
Motivation

Motivation to learn is
acquired "through general
experience but stimulated
most directly through
modeling, communication of
expectations, and direct
instruction or socialization
by significant others
(especially parents and
teachers)."
- Jere Brophy, 1987
 Drive Self Self- Expecta Attribution Choice
Efficacy ncies Theory
Theory Determi Bernard Theory
Theory nation and
Clark Weiner Bob
Albert Values
Hull Theory Sullo
Bandura ( John W.
Edward Atkinson
Deci
 1. Drive Theory (Clark Hull)
• Drive is a condition of arousal on tension that
motivates behavior
• Drives most typically have been considered to
involve physiological survival needs; hunger,
thirst, sleep, pain sex
• A drive results from the activation of a need
• Need – a physiological deficiency that creates
condition of disequilibrium in the body
• Need-> Drive->Behavior
Ask to do a learning task, Caloy hesitates and says
“Mahirap. Ayaw ko.’ Di ko kaya!”
( Its difficult. Idont like it. Icant do it.)

1. Which statement about Caloy is correct?

a. Has a low sense of efficacy

b. Has no sense of self-efficacy
c. Has a high sense of efficacy
d. Wants to be sure of his self efficacy
2. Which drive can motivate him to perform the
learning task?

a. Achieve c. affiliate
b. Have power d. to be free
1. To which factor can you attribute his perceived
inability to perform the task? To a factor
_________.

I. Within him III. Which is stable

II. Outside his control IV. Within his
control
a. I and IV c. I only
b. II and III d. IV only

1. Is it possible to motivate this kind of student?

a. Yes, he can do something within his ability.

b. Yes he can change the nature of the job.
c. No, it is impossible to motivate a student who
himself is not motivated.
d. No, motivation is totally dependent on the
student. No person outside him can influence
him.
1. To which problem does the case of the
students allude?
I. Unmotivated students
II. Uncaring teachers
III.Extremely difficult learning tasks
IV.Incompetent teachers

a. I and III c. II and III

b. I and II d. I, II, and III
 2. Self- Efficacy Theory
• Self –efficacy the belief that one has the
capabilities to execute the courses of
actions required to manage prospective
situations.
• The belief ( whether or not accurate) that
one has the power to produce the effect
• Relates to a person’s perception of his/her
ability to reach a goal, while self-esteem
relates to a person’s sense of self-worth
 3. Self- Determination Theory
• Comes from the sense of autonomy that a
person has when it comes to things that
he does and the choices he makes.
 Tasks for a long period of time
 To think meaningfully and creatively about
those tasks
 To experience pleasure in ones activities\to
achieve at higher level
 We have the capacity to take risks or
challenges that can enrich our lives and
develop ourselves more
 4. Expectancies and Values

• Motivation to perform is affected by two

variables
Expectancy – people must believe that
they can accomplish a tasks, that is, they
should have expectancy about what they
want to achieve.
Value- they should place an importance or
value in what they are doing
1. Which is/are evidence of a conducive learning
environment?
I. Students make mistakes and ask for assistance.
II.Students participate fully in the learning process
III.Students are encouraged to ask and answer questions
IV.Students attempt new approaches
•
a. II and III c. II and IV
b. I, II, III and IV d. III and IV
 Achievement Motivation
Instructional Implications

• To develop a high sense of achievement the teacher

must:
– Encourage their children to attempt difficult but realistic tasks.
– Reward and praise the child when success is achieved.
– Not complain or punish when the child fails, but encourage the
child to try again or try another method. - Morris,1995
 Achievement Motivation
Atkinson: Expectancy Value Theory (1957)

• What determines a student’s achievement motivation?

– Achievement behaviors are determined by achievement motives,
expectancies for success, and incentive values. - Wigfield, Tonks, Eccles,
2004

expectancy for success = an individual’s perception of their

probability for success
incentive for success = the desirability of success in a task
versus the probability of success
work 18 hours/day
 Achievement Motivation
Atkinson: Expectancy Value Theory (1957)

• Expectancy Value = conflict between hope for

success and fear of failure.
Ts= MsX Ps X Is
T = tendency to approach an achievement related goal
M = motivated to succeed
P = probability of success
I = incentive value of success

• People will be motivated to achieve the task they

value and that they believe they can achieve - Schunk,
2004
 Achievement Motivation
Instructional Implications

• Students must engage in work that is meaningful, but is gauged to

their developmental level so as to reduce the fear of failure.
• The task must not be too easy because this reduces the satisfaction
or value of the task.
• Repeated success builds the perception of competence.
• Self efficacy increases the likelihood of a student choosing to move
on to more difficult tasks.
• Modify the environment - it must be positive with regard to education
and point to the value of each educational domain.
 "Why did I successfully accomplish this
work?“
"Why did Jack flunk math?“

• The answers to these questions reflect a

person's beliefs about the causes of results.
5. Attribution Theory
• Attribution Theory:
explains how people view the causes of their
behavior and outcomes
• Peoples various explanations for successes and
failures

• Attributions are:
learner’s perceived causes of outcomes based
on various factors including - ability, effort, task,
luck, emotions, behavior , mood, climate
 5.1. Locus of control: internal-
external
Locus means the cause is within (internal) or
outside (external) an individual.

Factors like mood and ability are internal

causes, whereas luck and teacher bias are
external causes.
 5.2. Stability: stable-unstable

Stability means the cause is unchanging. "I'm

good at playing guitar since I've practiced over
one year".
In this case, the ability of playing guitar is a
stable cause for this person.
"I got an A in math this time because the test is
very easy, everyone had an A.“
Someone performed very well just by chance,
and the easy test is an inconsistent or unstable
cause.
5.3. Controllability: controllable
uncontrollable
Controllability refers to the factors that we
can control to influence results.

Factors like skill and competence are

classified as controllable, whereas luck and
mood are classified as uncontrollable.
 Pearls - what to remember…
General Strategies
• Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.
• Make students active participants in learning.
• Ask students to analyze what makes their classes more or less
"motivating."

Incorporate Instructional Behaviors That Motivate Students

• Hold high but realistic expectations for your students.
• Help students set achievable goals for themselves
• Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course.
• Be enthusiastic about your subject.
 Pearls - what to remember…
Structure the Course to Motivate Students
• Work from students' strengths and interests.
• Vary your teaching methods.
• Connect learning with student needs.

De-emphasize Grades
• Emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades.
• Avoid using grades as threats.
• Focus on effort, not ability.
1.Who of the following authors would most help
teacher Caloy to understand the underlying
effects of poverty on academic achievement?

a. Maslow c. Piaget
b.Dewey d. Kohlberg
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Implications of Maslow’s Theory
• A satisfied need is not a strong motivator but
an unsatisfied need is.
• “Unless the two lower-order needs
(physiological and security) are basically
satisfied, employees will not be greatly
concerned with higher-order needs
(Newstrom, 1997).