THYROID DISEASE

Dr J. Bennett FY2
Objectives
• To understand basic thyroid axis physiology
• To know the common causes of hypo and hyperthyroidism
• To recognise the signs and symptoms associated with
hypo and hyperthyroidism
• To understand TFT interpretation
• To know the management for hypo and hyperthyroidism,
and the more important complications associated with
these
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis
• Hypothalamus secretes
thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH)
• TRH stimulates thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH)
from anterior pituitary.
• TSH stimulates T3 & T4
production from the thyroid
• T3 & T4 exert –ve feedback
on the pituitary and
hypothalamus.
Hypothyroidism - Aetiology
• Primary hypothyroidism
• Autoimmune mediated
• Primary atrophic hypothyroidism
• Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
• Acquired
• Iatrogenic – Post-thyroidectomy or radio-iodine treatment
• Drug-induced – Anti-thyroid, lithium, amiodarone
• Iodine deficiency – Most common cause worldwide
• Sub-acute thyroiditis – May result in thyroroxicosis for first 4-6 weeks
• Post partum thyroiditis
• Sick euthyroidism -
• Secondary hypothyroidism – hypopituitarism (rare)
Hypothyroidism – Signs and Symptoms
• Symptoms • Signs
• Weight gain • General
• Fatigue, lethargy • Dry skin and hair
• Dislike of cold • Goitre
• Non-pitting oedema
• Constipation
• Facial features – purple lips,
• Menorrhagia
malar flush, periorbital
• Hoarse voice oedema, lateral eyebrow loss
• Myalgia • CVS
• Carpal tunnel syndrome • Bradycardia
• Psychiatric symptoms • Neuro
• Depression • Cerebellar ataxia
• Dementia • Slow relaxing reflexes
• Peripheral neuropathy
Hyperthyroidism – Aetiology
• Hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis)
• Graves Disease (76%)
• IgG antibodies directed against TSH receptors on thyroid – stimulates
T3 & T4 production and proliferation of thyroid follicular cells
• Long term can result in hypothyroidism
• Toxic adenoma and toxic multinodular goitre
• Autonomously secretes thyroid hormones, inhibits endogenous TSH
• Thyroiditis
• Iodide induced
• TSH induced – eg TSH secreting pituitary adenoma (rare)
Hyperthyroidism – Signs and Symptoms
• Symptoms • Signs
• Weight loss • General
• Increased appetite • Hair thinning
• Heat intolerance • Goitre
• Lid lag, lid retraction
• Palpitations
• Pre-tibial myxoedema
• Fatigue
• Eye signs
• Sweating
• Palmar erythema
• Diarrhoea
• CVS
• Oligomenorrhoea
• Tachycardia
• Psychiatric symptoms • AF
• Irritability
• Neuro
• Emotional lability
• Fine tremor
• Psychosis
Hyperthyroidism – Eye Disease
• Associated with Graves’ disease
• Inflammation of retro-orbital tissues
• Symptoms
• Eye discomfort, grittiness
• Excess tear production
• Photophobia
• Diplopia
• Decreased acuity
• Signs
• Exopthalmos
• Proptosis
• Opthalmoplegia
Investigations – TFTs

- +
-
TSH
+
TSH
TSH TSH

- +
-
+
T3, T4 T3, T4
T3, T4 T3, T4

Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism Hypopituitarism TSH secreting

tumour
↑TSH; ↓T4,T3 ↓TSH; ↑T4,T3 ↓TSH; ↓T4,T3 ↑TSH; ↑T4,T3
Investigations – Other tests
• Bloods
• Thyroid auto-antibodies
• TSH receptor antibodies – Graves’ disease
• USS Thyroid + FNAC
• Isotope scan
Hypothyroidism - Management
• Conservative
• Lifestyle - smoking cessation, weight loss
• Medical
• Levothyroxine (T4) – adjust dose according to clinical response
and normalisation of TSH levels. Caution required in patients with
IHD as exacerbation of myocardial ischaemia and infarction are
known complications
• Surgical
• Symptomatic – carpal tunnel decompression, thyroidectomy if
compression of local structures
Hyperthyroidism - Management
• Conservative
• Smoking cessation – especially with Graves’s ophthalmology,
associated with worse prognosis
• Medical
• Symptomatic – β-blockers
• Carbimazole, propylthiouracil
• Risk of agranulocytosis
• Radio-iodine treatment – caution in patients of childbearing age;
must avoid contact with pregnant women and small children
• Long term likely to become hypothyroid
• Usually avoided in Graves’ disease
Hyperthyroidism - Management
• Surgical
• Subtotal/total thyroidectomy
• Orbital decompression if thyroid eye disease causing compression
of optic nerve
• Complications of thyroid surgery
• Immediate
• Haemorrhage (haematoma can cause airway obstruction)
• Short term
• Infection
• Long term
• Damage to laryngeal nerve – hoarse voice
• Hypothryoidism
• Transient hypocalcaemia
• Hypoparathyroidism
Thyroid Storm
• Medical emergency (rare) – 10% mortality even with early
recognition and management
• Aetiology -
• Infection in a patient with unrecognised or inadequately treated
thyrotoxicosis
• Post 131I treatment or post sub-total thyroidectomy
• Signs • Management
• Fever • IV fluids
• Agitation and confusion • Broad spectrum antibiotics
• Tachycardia +/- AF • Propanolol, digoxin
• Antithyroid drugs – sodium
ipodate, Lugol’s solution,
carbimozole
Thyroid Cancers
Type of Frequency (%) Age at 20 year
tumour presentation survival (%)
(years)

Papillary 70 20-40 95

Follicular 10 40-60 60

Anaplastic 5 >60 <1

Medullary 5-10 >40 50

Lymphoma 5-10 >60 10

Clinical Scenario
• 39 year old lady presents with 3 months history of weight loss and
diarrhoea.
• She has been suffering from excessive sweating and a recent family
holiday to Tunisia was ruined as she was unable to tolerate the weather.
Her eyes also feel gritty a lot of the time and she has had friends ask her
why she is staring at them. She is otherwise well and her only
medication is St John’s Wort. She has no known allergies. She does not
smoke and drinks alcohol socially. On exam she is slight with sweaty
palms and a fine tremor when her arms are out stretched. Her pulse is
100bpm and irregularly irregular. She has exophthalmos and lid lag. She
also has a diffuse non tender swelling on the front of her neck which
moves with swallowing.

• What are your differentials for this lady?

• How would you investigate her?
• How would you manage her?
• What are the cardinal features of Grave’s disease?
• What drug is used in pregnant hyperthyroid patients?
• What are complications of thyroid surgery?
Further topics to cover
• Thyroid Anatomy
• Cellular structure and function
• Blood supply
• Thyroid physiology
• Production of T3 and T4 in thyroid follicles
• Transport of T3 and T4 (protein binding)
• Peripheral conversion of T4 to T3
• Further TFT results and their significance
• Impact of amiodarone on the thyroid – complex, can
cause both hypo and hyperthyrodism
• Details of thyroid malignancy
• Management of thyroid disease in pregnancy