Learning

Theories
Learning Theories and Instruction
Definitive Behaviorist Cognitive Constructivist Social Learning Connectivism Adult
Questions for Theory Theory Theory Theory Learning
Learning
Theories
How does Behaviorist Cognitive Constructivist Social & Connectivism Adult-based
learning occur? Learning Learning Learning Interactive Learning Learning
Learning
What factors Behavioral Cognitive Constructivist Social & Connectivism Adult Learning
influence Factors Factors Factors Interactive Factors Factors
learning? Learning Factors

What is the role Behaviorist Cognitive Constructivist Social & Connectivism Adult Learning
of memory? Memory Memory Memory Interactive Memory Memory
LearningMemory
How does Behaviorist Cognitive Constructivist Social & Connectivism Adult Learning
transfer occur? Transfer Transfer Transfer Interactive Transfer Transfer
Learning Transfer
What types of Behaviorist Types Cognitive Types Constructivist Social & Connectivism Adult-based
learning are best of Learning of Learning Types of Learning Interactive Types Types of Learning Types of
explained by this of Learning Learning
theory?
How is Behaviorist Cognitive Constructivist Social & Connectivism Adult Learning
technology used Technology Technology Technology Interactive Technology Technology
for learning in Learning
your industry? Technology
 Behaviorist Learning

“Behaviorism equates learning with changes in either the form or frequency of observable
performance. Learning is accomplished when a proper response is demonstrated followingthe
presentation of a specific environmental stimulus” (Ertmer, & Newby,1993).

• Behaviorist learning occurs through conditioning—a stimulus-response method or rewards- punishment method.
This learning theory is further divided into two types of conditioning – classical and operant.

• Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and
a naturally occurring stimulus; for e.g. anxiety students can face before appearing for a test.

• Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. For e.g. a
student completing his homework on time and getting rewarded from a parent or teacher or employees finishing
and meeting their project deadline and getting praised or promoted for their work performance.
Behaviorist Factors

“Thelearner and environment are both considered by behaviorists with

the environment receiving greater emphasis. The most critical
factor influencing learning is the arrangement of stimuliand
consequences within the environment” (Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

• Learning is influenced by students, stimuli and the environment.

• Consequences occur immediately after a behavior, which can be

positive or negative, expected or unexpected, immediate or long-
term, extrinsic or intrinsic, material or symbolic,
emotional/interpersonal or even unconscious.

• Reinforcement is presentation of a stimulus that increases the

probability of a response, for e.g. a teacher praising student s after a
correct response. A negative reinforcement increases the probability
of a response that removes or prevents an adverse condition, for e.g.
obtaining a score of 80% or higher makes the final exam optional.

• Positive Punishment is the adding of stimulus to the environment

that decrease the probability of a behavior in the future. Negative
punishment is the removal of a stimulus from the environment that
decreases the probability of a behavior in the future.
 Behaviorist Memory

“Memory is typically not addressed by behaviorists. Forgetting is attributed to “nonuse” of a response over time”
(Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

•When it comes to Behaviorism-Memory, behaviorist worry more about habits being formed and less about how
the habits are stored.

• Memory is developed when a stimulus and its response occurs repeatedly.

Behaviorist Transfer

“Transfer is a result of generalization. Situations involving identical or

similar features allow behaviors to transfer across common
elements” (Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

 Transfer of knowledge in behaviorism is done through:

o Specification of desired outcome such as encouraging student
participation in the class.

o Developing a positive and nurturing environment, such as encouraging

student-teacher interaction related to learning material.

o Identifying and using appropriate reinforces, such as acknowledging a

student’s exceptional performance within his peers.

o Reinforcing positive behavior patterns, such as encouraging students to

engage in class discussions

o Evaluate and assess effective learning by comparing teacher expectations

with student performance. For e.g. Compare the frequency of student
responses in class discussions to the amount of support provided, and
determine whether the student is independently engaging in class
discussions (Brewer, Campbell, & Petty, 2000).
 Behaviorist: Types of Learning

“Stimulus-response learning is the ability to learn to perform a particular behavior when a certain stimulusis
present”
(Cannon, 1999).

 Emphasis should be given on producing observable and measurable outcomes in students, such as behavioral
objectives, task analysis, criterion-reference assessment.
 Pre-assessing/learner analysis should be done to determine where instruction is required.
 use of reinforcement to impact student performance, such as giving tangible rewards and informative feedback.
 Use of cues, shaping and practice to ensure a strong stimulus-response association. Cues can be presented to
facilitate the learning needed to create the correct response – examples of the correct answer or way to do
something
Behaviorist Technology

Instructional Technology is defined as

"the theory and practice of design, development, utilization,
management, and evaluation of processes and resources
for learning“ - Association for Educational Communications
and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology
Committee.

 In corporate training, instructional designers work on

program development, assessment strategies, instructional
strategies, and student engagement techniques for face-to-
face courses as well as online and blended courses.

 In organization work environment, the Instructional Designer

storyboard and design content outline as well as objectives
for classroom-based/online learning material, from
suggesting all images to using interactive activities as
practice work and assessments.

 Some commonly used instruction tools include: Camtasia,

Captivate, Inspiration, Flash, Photoshop, live training
platforms such as Centra, Windows Live Meeting and Go To
Meeting/Training.
Cognitive Learning

“Learning is equated with changes between states ofknowledge.

Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that
entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. Thelearner
is viewed as a very active participant in the learning process”
(Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

 Connecting prior knowledge to new knowledge – use of analogy

to make new concepts seem familiar more quickly.

 Focuses more processes such as thinking, problem solving,

language, concept formation and information processing.

 Identifying patterns which are useful problem solving by showing

the learner what information they need to access to deal with a
new situation that may resemble something they already know.
Cognitive Factors

“Learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values are considered to be

influential in the learning process. The real focus of the cognitive
approach is on changing the learner by encouraging him/her to use
appropriate learning strategies” (Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

 Attention, a cognitive process that selectively concentrates on one aspect

of the environment while ignoring things, for instance listen carefully to
what someone is saying while ignoring other conversations in a room.

 Perception is the idea that learning is fundamental and essential to

individual and professional development, which encompasses the need
for individuals to actively accept responsibility for their own learning and
actively strive to develop themselves throughout their life.

 Mental Processes , Cognition includes every mental process that may be

described as an experience of knowing (including perceiving, recognizing,
conceiving, and reasoning), as distinguished from an experience of feeling
or of willing.
Cognitive Memory

“Learning results when information is stored in memoryin

an organized, meaningful manner” (Ertmer, & Newby,
1993).

•Cognitivism-Memory plays a large role in the learning

process. They store information in an organized and
meaningful fashion.

• Rehearsal is the key in Cognitivism to remember starting

with encoding, storage, and then retrieval.

•Metacognition refers to a level of thinking that involves

active control over the process of thinking that is used in
learning situations.
Cognitive Transfer

Transfer in Cognitivism works in the same way as in Behaviorism

– “when a learner understands how to apply knowledgein
different contexts, then transfer has occurred.”

•Transfer refers to knowledge applied in new ways, situations, or

in different situations with different content.

•Transfer explains how prior learning effects subsequent learning,

that is why it is involved in new learning because students apply
their prior knowledge and experience with their present learning.

•Types of Transfer include: Positive transfer occurs when prior

learning facilitates subsequent learning, e.g. learning to drive a
standard transmission car. Negative transfer means prior learning
interferes with subsequent learning or makes it more difficult, e.g.
from learning to drive a standard transmission car to driving a
automatic transmission car. Zero transfer means that one type of
learning has no noticeable influence on subsequent learning, e.g.
learning to drive a car will not hinder with the learning of
operating a computer.
Cognitive Types of Learning

“Cognitive theories are usually considered more appropriate for

explaining complex forms of learning (reasoning, problem-solving,
information-processing)” (Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

 Self regulation is similar to metacognitive awareness, which includes

task and personal knowledge.

 Self regulated learning requires learners to understand task demands,

their personal qualities and strategies for complete the task.

 Metacognitive awareness includes procedural knowledge, which

helps learners to regulate their learning material, monitor their
learning level, indicate when to take a different task approach and
assess test readiness.

 Students need to view learning as an activity that they do for

themselves in a proactive manner, rather than viewing learning as a
covert event that happens to them as a result of instruction
(Zimmerman, 2001).
 Cognitive Technology

•A blended e-learning course with technology to provide a virtual environment for employees to explore and become
familiar with the various applications used in the company. For e.g. a simulation-based game that provides a
“walkthrough” to new hires of the Human Resource (HR) department about the support services and everyday work
life of HR in an organization.
Constructivist Learning

 Constructivist learning is based on prior experiences and

knowledge, and learners construct their knowledge based on
their own meaning, rather than memorize answers and
rehearse what they’ve been taught.

 Another way to describe constructivist philosophy is through

the Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS). The model
approach was 5 E’s: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and
Evaluate. The 5E’s were later expanded and Examine and
Exchange were added.

 Constructivists nurture critical thinking skills. In this learning,

students are encouraged to connect ideas by summarizing
concepts; analyzing, interpreting, and predicting information; as
well as justifying and defending their ideas.

 Constructivist philosophy also claims that learning is an active

social process. Collaboration among students and teachers is a
mainstay in a constructivist classroom and is interactive with
teachers promoting extensive dialogue among students.
Constructivist Factors

“Both learner and environmental factors are critical to the

constructivist, as it is the specific interaction between
these two variables that creates knowledge” (Ertmer, &
Newby, 1993).

 Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences

and hypotheses of the environment and learners
continuously test these hypotheses by social interaction.

 Every learner has a different interpretation and

construction of knowledge process. The learner brings
past experiences and cultural factors to a situation in his
learning and then combines prior knowledge with new
information.
 Constructivist Memory

“…”memory” is always under construction as a cumulative history of interactions…The emphasis is not on retrieving
intact knowledge structures, but on providing learners with the means to create novel and situation-specific
understandings by “assembling” prior knowledge form diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand”
(Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

 Constructivism-Memory is always under construction. By retrieving old information it assists learners in

comprehending new information.

 The basic principles of constructivism suggest that learners are more apt to remember information if their
constructions are personally meaningful to them (Ormrod, Schunk & Gredler, 2009).
 Constructivist Transfer

“The constructivist position assumes that transfer can be facilitated by involvement in authentic tasks anchored in
meaningful contexts” (Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

 The learner strives to acquire knowledge and through asking questions of their own knowledge, increases
knowledge

 Assisted with group and individual projects that are not necessarily instructor led. Instructor’s role is to provide a
supportive environment, not to lecture and give students answers.
 Constructivist Types of Learning

 Active Learning: is a type of instruction that involves learners working in pairs/group work, discuss study material
while role-playing , debate, engage in case study or take part in cooperative learning.

 Discovery Learning: is a type of inquiry-based instruction. This type of learning involves problem-solving situations
where the learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge. Through this method of instruction students
interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies,
or performing experiments.

 Knowledge Building (KB): is a type of learning that focuses on creating or modifying public knowledge. It involves
making a collective inquiry into a specific topic, and coming to a deeper understanding through interactive
questioning, dialogue, and continuing improvement of ideas.
Constructivist Technology

 In employee training courses, interactive learning is included

such as peer collaboration, reciprocal teaching and problem-
solving instruction.

 Classroom-based trainings and remote trainings include

discussions and group activities/hands-on, which are useful
when the objective is to acquire greater conceptual
understanding or multiple sides of a topic.

 Soft –skill trainings include presentation activities in which

students require to prepare their own presentation topic in
accordance with the training and then present it in front of the
rest of the class.

 Corporate E-learning/web-based training courses include

standards and assessments that assess the learner and the
learning progress and include diagnostic, process-based and
outcome based assessment feedback.
 Social & Interactive Learning

“People learn through observing others’ behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors” (Learning Theories
Knowledgebase, 2011).

 Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society
and constructing knowledge based on this understanding (Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997).

 Community learning influences an individual’s learning and it could be a traditional classroom setting, virtual
classroom or work place training.

 Vygotsky’s theory is a constructivist theory that emphasizes the social environment as a facilitator of development
and learning.
 Social & Interactive Learning Factors

Vygotsky stresses the interaction of interpersonal (Social), cultural-historical, and individual factors as the keyto
human development (Tudge & Scrimsher, 2003).

 Interactions between learners in the environments, e.g. apprenticeship or collaborations stimulate developmental
process and foster cognitive growth.

 Cultural historical aspects of Vygostky’s theory mentions that learning and development cannot be dissociated
from their context. The way learners interact with the people, objects and institutions in it transforms their
thinking.

 Vygotsky believed that individual/inherited characteristics produce different learning trajectories.

 Social & Interactive Learning Memory

“…”memory” is always under construction as a cumulative history of interactions…The emphasis is not on retrieving
intact knowledge structures, but on providing learners with the means to create novel and situation-specific
understandings by “assembling” prior knowledge form diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand”
(Ertmer, & Newby, 1993).

 According to Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory suggests that people learn from one another, via observation,
imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning
theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
 Social & Interactive Learning Transfer

 Transfer is evident in the ability of a learner to continuously apply concepts throughout a process. The role of the
learner is to participate in a system of practices that are themselves evolving (Cobb & Bowers, 1999). For example,
an outstanding student whose performance is noticed by the teacher and the teacher compliments and praises the
student (observer) for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.

 Many behaviors learnt from others also produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a student in a
multimedia class could observe how an extra task done by a classmate turned out be an engaging and fun task. This
student in turn would do the same extra work and also receive enjoyment.
Social & Interactive Learning: Types of Learning

“Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling:

from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information servesas
a guide for action” (Bandura, A. 1977).

 Attention — various reasons increase or decrease the amount of

attention paid during a learning process, including distinctiveness,
affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. An
individual’s characteristics e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level,
perceptual set, past reinforcement affect attention.

 Retention — means remembering/recalling what you paid attention

to or learnt during a lesson. Some of the ways to increase attention
is though symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization,
symbolic rehearsal, and motor rehearsal.

 Motor Reproduction — or ability to replicate a behavior, which means

that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could
be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to
replicate the action. For instance, small children have difficulty in
doing complex physical motion.

 Motivation — means having a good reason to imitate or learners

must demonstrate what they have learned. It Includes motives such
as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives)
and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model).
 Social & Interactive Learning Technology

 Remote-based training and web mentoring sessions are conducted by corporate organizations to train the trainers
(TTT) or employees.

 Learning becomes a social process, especially when employees are engaged in social activities, though training
using social media such as Facebook, Twitter, MySpace and blogs.

 Online streaming videos and sharing training and useful reference learning information through YouTube.
Connectivism Learning

“Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous

environments of shifting core elements – not entirely
under the control of the individual. Learning (defined as
actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves
(within an organization or a database), is focused on
connecting specialized information sets, and the
connections that enable us to learn more are more
important than our current state of knowing” (Siemens,
2005).

Connectivism -
 Is a process of connecting specialized nodes or
information sources.
 Capacity to know more is much more critical than what is
already or currently known.
 Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to
facilitate continual learning.
 Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and
concepts is a core skill.
Connectivism Factors

“The factor that influences learning in connectivism isthe

diversity of network, strength of ties and contextof
occurrence” (Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, 2008).

 Self direction- Self-directed learners could rely on networks to

learn, however, they must also need to make their own
decisions on learning, based on critical thinking and
reflection.

 Network-directed learning - refers to increasing the

intellectual relevance of the connections as a route to
improving knowledge interactions. A diverse and
knowledgeable network allows learner to gain better wisdom
on issues improving his intelligence.
 Connectivism Memory

“Memory plays a role through adaptive patterns, representative of current state, and exists innetworks” (Davis,
Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, 2008).

 Memory is defined by connection of nodes- networking. The nodes, if they exist, are endlessly dissolving and
resolving, the connections are endlessly forming, and what is important is not the connection, the bridge or the
node, but the ways, contexts, conditions in which they form, coalesce, emerge or disappear or are constructed. That
is where the learning is.
Connectivism Transfer

“Transfer occurs through connecting to information(by

adding nodes) and growing the networkvia
social/conceptual/biological connections” (Davis,
Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, 2008)

 Brain does not hold chunks of information/knowledge,

its networked. For instance, an image of a face does not
exists in our brain, instead different regions of the brain
contribute in producing recognition.

 Conceptual connections generate meanings. In formal

learning, we are more conscious of the process because
we are trying bringing together our life experiences and
current understanding of a topic with new information
provided by a course or training program.

 Internet, web, and social media has raised the profile of

networks because we now experience them in our daily
life. When directed toward learning, networks (web,
citations, social) are inescapable.
 Connectivism: Types of Learning

“Complex learning, learning which has a rapid changing core and learning occurring from diverse knowledge sources”
(Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, 2008).

 Advancements in technology has impacted and evolved the education system and how instruction should be
delivered. Today, our networks are explicit in tools like Facebook, Twitter, email, and LinkedIn. Most of these
services provide users the ability to analyze how they are connected to others.

 Connectivism emphasized always on distribution and connectedness of knowledge and learning. Social networks
are one way of “being distributed”, while Technological and informational networks are another.
Connectivism Technology

 Learning Management System (LMS) enable administrators

and instructors in the corporate training world to: track
employee/staff learning progress, manage content, and
roster students.

 Social software and Personal Learning Environments (PLEs)

are gaining substantial attention these days as an
alternative learning tool to LMS. PLEs are defined as:
“systems that help learners take control of and manage
their own learning” (Van Harmelen, 2006,)

 Some examples of socially-based tools comprise of : blogs,

wikis, social bookmarking sites, social networking sites,
content aggregation through RSS and Atom, podcast and
video cast tools, search engines, emails, and voice over IP.
Adult Learning

Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn. Malcolm

Knowles is the father of andragogy as he proposed five factors involved
in adult learning.

The five assumptions underlying andragogy describe the adult learner

as someone who:
 Has an independent self-concept and who can direct his or her own
learning
 Has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich
resource for learning
 Has learning needs closely related to changing social roles
 Is problem-centered and interested in immediate application of
knowledge
 Is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors
(Merriam, 2001, p.5).
Adult Learning Factors

The factors that influence adult learning are those that the
learner brings with them:
 Life experience, including life altering events that affect
cognitive abilities
 Work experience, including development of thinking patterns
based on this experience
 Positive/negative previous adult learning experiences
 Performance affecters, including cognitive abilities
 Time between learning interactions
 Aging factors (Conlan, Graboswski, & Smith, 2003).
Adult Learning Memory

“Memory plays a role through adaptive patterns, representative of current state,

and exists in networks” (Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, 2008).

 Older adults can not effectively use the processes of attention, organization,
mediation, for instance the use of devices with visual/verbal images and verbal
expressions to link meaningful bits of information into integrated memorable
whole, and elaboration. This form is called processing deficit.

 Structural deficit form in adults means speed and capacity limitations

associated with age-related changes in the central nervous system.

 While older adults may fail to integrate seemingly trivial facts, they integrate
meaningful new knowledge with existing related knowledge, ensuring high
levels of recall. Activation of existing knowledge may help to moderate recall
deficits in older adults.
Adult Learning Transfer

“Adult learners are most interested in immediate application of their

learning” (Conlan, Graboswski, & Smith, 2003).

 Adults can observe and grasp information from their educational

setting and apply it as a solution to every-day life situations, such
as on the job, at home, or in a different educational setting from
where the information was obtained.

 Transfer of learning for adults is not automatic and must be

facilitated. Coaching and other kinds of follow-up support are
needed to help adult learners transfer learning into daily practice
so that it is sustained.
Adult Learning: Types of Learning

 Action Learning: In this type of learning participants work in small

groups on a real project/problem and learn how to learn from that
activity. For e.g. Leadership team undergoes a training about retention
policy of their organization. In groups, the students brainstorm and
come up with new strategies that can help in resolving company’s
attrition rate.

 Experiential Learning: This is a holistic learning approach in which the

learner utilizes his/her experiences and learning strengths in the process
of constructing knowledge. It is more commonly referred to as “learning
by doing”. For e.g. Hands-on activities given in a training session.

 Project Based learning: In this type of learning participants work in small

groups to solve a challenging, interdisciplinary problem using group
chosen strategies and activities. For e.g. In groups, students search out
possible plans for the park through surveys, studies, etc.

 Self-directed learning: This is an informal learning process in which an

individual takes on the responsibility for his/her learning process by
identifying their learning needs, setting goals, finding resources,
implementing strategies, and evaluating their results. For e.g. Creating a
plan and budget to buy a new car.
Adult Learning Technology

“The most significant trend that continues to make an impact on

facilitators is the demand for the incorporation of technology
into the content and delivery of professional development”(
King, 2003).

 Through the Learning Management System (LMS), training

coordinators and managers are allowed to create individual
learning plans and learning assessments, linked to career
development of an employee. LMS is a way that technology is
used for learning in the corporate training industry.

 Online courses/eLearning/web-based trainings are a means of

professional development for employees. Most of the courses can
accessed via a training portal or LMS and extra information and
outside resources can be downloaded as well.

 Social media learning is also becoming quiet common in the

corporate sector and refers to the acquisition of information and
skills through social technologies that allow people to collaborate,
converse, provide input, create content and share it. Examples of
social media learning can occur through online social networking
platforms like Facebook, blogs and microblogs like Twitter, online
talk radio and wikis.
 References

 Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing critical features from an
instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50–71.

 Standridge, M.. (2002). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology.
Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

 Orey, M. (2001). Information Processing. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and
technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

 Kim, B. (2001). Social Constructivism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology.
Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

 Conlan, J., Grabowski, S., & Smith, K.. (2003). Adult Learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning,
teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

 Ormrod, J., Schunk, D., & Gredler, M. (2009). Learning theories and instruction (Laureate custom edition). New
York: Pearson.

 Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2011, February). Social Learning Theory (Bandura) at Learning-Theories.com.
Retrieved from http://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html

 Siemens, G. (2005, January). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of
Instructional Technology & Distance Learning, Retrieved from http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_05/article01.htm