Migration

Natural
Selection

MECHANISMS Genetic
Drift

Recombination

Mutation

EVOLUTION
Fossil
Records

Comparative
Anatomy
EVIDENCE Comparative
Embryology
Genetic
Data
Geographical
Distribution
 Genetic Drift refers to changes in the gene pool, the genetic make-
up consisting of every type of allele in all the members of a population over
time due to chance. Consequently, these changes help drive the evolution of
populations.

For example, a generation of the offspring of two beetles produces

green and brown beetle. However, if the green beetles are accidentally
killed, the next generation will have less green beetle due to chance.
 As a rule, only traits from existing variations in the population are
selected. To create new varieties, mutation and recombination of genes have to
take place.

Mutation is a change in the DNA that can be passed on to the next generation.

Genetic Recombination, on the other hand, happens during gamete formation

when genes are moved and interchanged across chromosomes. Recombined
genes that results in good fitness survive and are passed on to succeeding
generations.

The speciation of Galapagos finches through time was a result of mutation

and recombination of many generations which produced characteristics that
are well-adapted to the Galapagos ecosystem.
 Natural Selection is probably the strongest force of evolution. Natural
selection happens when relative fitness of interacting species in the ecosystem
significantly differs. Disparate competition among these species results in a
disproportionate distribution of gene pool in succeeding generations. Fitness is
the measure of the genetic contribution of a particular species to the next
generation. The survival and reproductive success of a particular species
contribute to its fitness. In quantitative terms, fitness is the product of the rate
of survival of a species and its fertility index
An example of natural selection in humans is the survival of people with sickle
cell anemia. Sickle cell anemia is a blood disease where mutation causes red
blood cells (RBC) to appear sickle-shaped. These abnormally shaped RBCs have
low oxygen capacity and may obstruct blood flow in capillaries. Despite the
theoretical negative selection against this mutation, scientists noticed that
frequency of this allele in the African population is high. A heterozygous
inheritance of this disease will make half normal and half sickle-shaped RBCs.
They discovered that blood with sickle-shaped RBC composition is more
resistant to malaria than normal blood, thus increasing its relative fitness.
Another selection process is called Artificial Selection. Unlike natural selection which is
driven by the fitness of species in the environment, artificial selection is driven by the
propagation of a type of species by human. In agriculture, farmers and breeders cause
major changes in the features of plants and animals over the course of decades.
Farmers and breeders allowed only the plants and animals with desirable
characteristics to reproduce, causing the environment of farm stock.
 Migration enables gene flow or the movement of genetic characteristics from one
population to another. If for example, two populations had different gene frequencies,
the movement of individuals between the groups will cause a convergence or will
equalize gene frequencies in the two population.
Fossil records, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, genetic data, and
geographical distribution make up a body of evidence of evolution.

Fossil records are useful sources of evidence for evolution. Fossil records show that
many extinct organisms were different from those that exist today. Fossil records
also help scientists reconstruct and trace the transformation of organisms. For
instance, the modern one-toed horse evolved from about 50 million years ago,
beginning with its earliest ancestor, the five –toed Hyracotherium.
Comparative anatomy shows that the similarity in the bones of the front leg of a horse , the
bat’s wing, the bird’s wing, and the human arm, suggests a common evolutionary origin.
Likewise, comparative embryology of the development of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals
shows the early stages of growth of these representative organisms, suggesting a common
ancestry among them.
The development of molecular biology has enabled scientists to gather genetic data.
Genetic data, together with fossil records, provide insight into the evolution of
organisms, as they are used to present gene trees that provide a reconstruction of the
common ancestry among them.

Geographical distribution provides another evidence of evolution. Organisms that have

similar characteristics may be found in different continents. Also, similar organisms
may inhabit different environments, and evolve along separate lines. For instance,
mammals, such as whales, primates and bats, are adapted to living in different
environments.
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Scientists infer how closely related organisms are by using the evidence of
evolution, such as comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, and genetic
data.

In inferring evolutionary relationships through comparative anatomy, scientist

study the basic body plan of organisms, i.e., its bone arrangement. For example
scientists classify fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals as vertebrates
because they all have a similar body structure- an internal skeleton with a
backbone. It can be assumed that these organisms inherited their common body
plan from a shared ancestor.

Scientists infer evolutionary relationships by comparing the development of

organisms. For instance, an adult tortoise, chick and rabbit look quite different,
but during their early development, these three organisms look similar. Through
these similarities, it can be inferred that these vertebrate species are related and
that they share a common ancestor.

Scientists also use genetic data to infer evolutionary relationships. Genes are
made of DNA and by comparing DNA sequences, scientists can study how
closely related the species are.