1.

explain how protein is made using

information from DNA
2. explain how mutations may cause
changes in the structure and
function of a protein;
Important Historical Experiments
 In the 1940s little was understood about inheritance and
how it worked.

 It was believed the genetic material was either DNA or

protein.
 It was understood that chromosomes are made of both DNA
and protein

 Initial experiments suggested it was protein…little was

understood about DNA’s structure or function (proteins
were identified as being more complex)
Video
Wilkins and Franklin
1953
 Franklin used x-ray diffraction to
photograph DNA (her pictures were
used by Watson and Crick)
 Wilkins was working closely with
Franklin in her lab and allegedly showed
Watson and Crick the photograph that
helped them build their model
 Watson, Wilkins, and Crick were
awarded the Nobel Prize for science in
1962.
 Rosalind Franklin died in 1958 of cancer
and was never given a Nobel Prize.
Watson and Crick
1953
 discovered the shape of DNA
molecule was a double helix
 using pictures of the molecule,
they built a model
 sugar/phosphate backbone

 nitrogen bases in the interior

 strands are antiparallel

 helix uniform in diameter

(base-pairing rules)
The original
DNA model of
Watson and
Crick in 1953
 According to Watson-Crick
model, the different
nitrogenous bases firm specific
pairs such that, A pairs with T,
while C pairs with G.
 Hydrogen bonds connect the
nitrogenous base pairs together,
making a double helix highly
stable.
 What are the key features of the
DNA model by Watson-Crick?
What is DNA and what it does?

Video
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
 Classified as a nucleic acid
(biological molecule)
 Genetic material organisms
inherit from their parents
 Copied prior to cell division
(mitosis/meiosis)

 Shape of a double helix

 Made up of nucleotides
(building blocks)
 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose),
phosphate, nitrogen base
 Base-Pairing Rules:
 AT
 CG

 Two types of bases

 Purines: two carbon rings
 Guanine, Adenine
 Pyrimidines: one carbon ring
 Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil
What is RNA and the difference
between DNA and RNA
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
 mRNA (messenger RNA)—instructions (from
DNA) for making protein
 tRNA (transfer RNA)– carries amino acids
 rRNA(ribosomal RNA)—makes up ribosomes

 5-carbon sugar (ribose)

 Single stranded (one gene)
 Uracil instead of thymine
 AU
 Both RNA and DNA…
 Have adenine, cytosine,
and guanine

 Made of nucleotides

 Sugar and phosphate

backbone
 Nitrogen bases
perpendicular to
backbone

 Held together by
hydrogen bonds
DNA ASSIGNMENT
The Central Dogma of
Molecular Genetics
What is a genetic code?
Protein Synthesis
REPLICATION: How DNA copies
itself
Biochemical Gymnastics: DNA
Replication
 Occurs during S-phase of Interphase
in the cell cycle

 Semi-conservative process. Each

new strand of DNA produced is
made of one parental and one new
strand (described by Watson and
Crick)
 Each strand serves as a template for
the new strand

 In prokaryotes DNA is circular,

replication happens in the cytoplasm.
 In eukaryotes DNA is linear,
replication happens in the nucleus.
DNA Replication
(Overview)
 Cells need to make identical copies of their genetic
material for growth and repair.
 Replication happens before cell division, why?
 Begins when the enzyme helicase, unwinds the double
helix of the DNA.
 The strands separate, breaking the weak hydrogen
bonds between the complementary base sequence.
 With the help of the enzyme primase, as the helix
unwinds new nucleotides are added to the parent
strand.
DNA Replication
(Overview)
 The DNA polymerase continue to add more
complimentary base pairs and does the proofreading to
avoid any mistakes.
 The DNA ligase seals any breaks in the new DNA strand
at the end of the replication process. Both DNA
polymerase and ligase repair the DNA strands when
damaged by harmful radiation or toxic chemicals.
What are the key players in
DNA Replication?
The Players.
 Helicase: enzyme that unwinds and unzips the helix at
the replication forks.

 Primase: enzyme that synthesizes the RNA primer for

replication

 DNA Polymerase: several enzymes that catalyze the

synthesis of new DNA (in eukaryotes there are 11 total);
also checks for errors

 Ligase: links new fragmented DNA segments together

Ending Replication…
 After every round of replication some of the DNA
molecule is lost due to polymerase not being able to
replicate it.

 To avoid excess loss of DNA, the ends of eukaryotic

chromosomes have telomeres (long repeating
sequences)
 Excess DNA nucleotides (no genetic info)
 Acts as a buffer to actual genes (does shorten over time—
thought to be evidence of aging)
TRANSCRIPTION: Making
Working Copies of the Genes
 Gene Expression: process by which
DNA directs the synthesis of proteins
 occurs in two parts: Transcription
and Translation
 this process dictates the presence of
specific traits (genotype/phenotype)
 occurs in all organisms
 Watson and Crick describes this as
the “central dogma”
(DNARNAProtein)
Transcription

 synthesis of RNA (mRNA) using DNA as a

template (protein instructions)
 occurs in nucleus (eukaryotes) or cytoplasm
(prokaryotes)
 Prokaryotes can begin translation before
transcription is finished
 Eukaryotes have an extra step during transcription
before translation can begin
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
 mRNA (messenger RNA)—instructions (from
DNA) for making protein
 tRNA (transfer RNA)– carries amino acids
 rRNA(ribosomal RNA)—makes up ribosomes

 5-carbon sugar (ribose)

 Single stranded (one gene)
 Uracil instead of thymine
 AU
RNA Modifications
(eukaryotes only)
 mRNA copies specific instructions from the DNA in
the nucleus To bring information to the cytoplasm.
 Transcription begins inside the nucleus when the DNA
unzips between it’s base pairs.
 Portion of DNA serves as templates for mRNA
formation.
 The enzyme RNA polymerase initiates the DNA
transcription, ensures that the right sequences are
transcribed, and produces a complementary strand.
 To form RNA strand,
mRNA bases pair up with
existing DNA bases. (But
uracil is paired with
adenine)
 The mRNA leaves the
nucleus with the copy of
the genetic instructions
and enters the
cytoplasm.
Translation
 It’s the last stage in gene
expression.
 It is the process
involved when genetic
information is used to
create amino acids And
the corresponding
proteins.
Translation
 synthesis of a
polypeptide using
mRNA as instructions
 occurs on ribosomes
(rRNA) in cytoplasm
 Codon-three base
code in the mRNA.
 Steps: the ribosomes
move along the
mRNA strand where
the codons will be
read and translated.
Translation
 tRNA attaches to the
mRNA inside the
ribosomes.
 The bases on the tRNA
(anticodon),read and
translate the message by
pairing up an equivalent
three-letter code to the
codons of mRNA.
 As the coding is read,
tRNA brings the
appropriate amino acid to
the ribosomes.
 Translation
 The universal language
that translates the gene
and the amino acid is the
genetic code, which
matches the three letter
combination of the four
nitrogenous bases to it’s
equivalent amino acid.
 The amino acids are
joined by peptide bonds
to form proteins. The
protein grows as more
amino acids Are
attached.
 instructions for producing a protein uses three
letters on mRNA (triplet code)
 codon: mRNA triplet (3 nucleotides)
 methionine is “start” (AUG)
 “stop” codons UAA, UAG, UGA