Nucleic acids

• Nucleic acids are molecules that allow organisms to transfer genetic

information from one generation to the next. These macromolecules
store the genetic information that determines traits and makes
protein synthesis possible. Two examples of nucleic acids include:
deoxyribonucleic acid (better known as DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(better known as RNA). These molecules are composed of long
strands of nucleotides held together by covalent bonds. Nucleic acids
can be found within the nucleus and cytoplasm of our cells.
Nucleic Acid Monomers

Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate

group.
• Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers.

• Nucleotides have three parts:

A Nitrogenous Base
A Five-Carbon (Pentose) Sugar
A Phosphate Group
Nitrogenous bases include purine molecules (adenine and guanine) and
pyrimidine molecules (cytosine, thymine, and uracil). In DNA, the five-carbon
sugar is deoxyribose, while ribose is the pentose sugar in RNA. Nucleotides are
linked together to form polynucleotide chains. They are joined to one another by
covalent bonds between the phosphate of one and the sugar of another. These
linkages are called phosphodiester linkages. Phosphodiester linkages form the
sugar-phosphate backbone of both DNA and RNA.

• Similar to what happens with protein and carbohydrate monomers, nucleotides

are linked together through dehydration synthesis. In nucleic acid dehydration
synthesis, nitrogenous bases are joined together and a water molecule is lost in
the process. Interestingly, some nucleotides perform important cellular functions
as "individual" molecules, the most common example being ATP.
• There are two major classes of nitrogenous bases: purines and
pyrimidines. Both classes resemble the molecule pyridine and are
nonpolar, planar molecules. Like pyridine, each pyrimidine is a single
heterocyclic organic ring. The purines consist of a pyrimidine ring fused
with an imidazole ring, forming a double ring structure.
Nitrogen Bases
• There are two kinds of nitrogen-containing bases - purines and
pyrimidines. Purines consist of a six-membered and a five-membered
nitrogen-containing ring, fused together. Pyridmidines have only a six-
membered nitrogen-containing ring. There are 4 purines and 4 pyrimidines
that are of concern to us.
• Purines
• Adenine = 6-amino purine
• Guanine = 2-amino-6-oxy purine
• Hypoxanthine = 6-oxy purine
• Xanthine = 2,6-dioxy purine
• Pyrimidines
• Uracil = 2,4-dioxy pyrimidine
• Thymine = 2,4-dioxy-5-methyl
pyrimidine
• Cytosine = 2-oxy-4-amino
pyrimidine
• Orotic acid = 2,4-dioxy-6-carboxy
pyrimidine
• Although there are many nitrogenous bases, the five most important to
know are the bases found in DNA and RNA, which are also used as energy
carriers in biochemical reactions. These are adenine, guanine, cytosine,
thymine, and uracil. Each base has what is known as a complementary base
that it binds to exclusively to form DNA and RNA. The complementary bases
form the basis for the genetic code.
• Let's take a closer look at the individual bases...
The 5 Main Nitrogen Bases
• Although there are many nitrogenous
bases, the five most important to
know are the bases found in DNA and
RNA, which are also used as energy
carriers in biochemical reactions.
These are adenine, guanine, cytosine,
thymine, and uracil. Each base has
what is known as a complementary
base that it binds to exclusively to
form DNA and RNA. The
complementary bases form the basis
for the genetic code.
• Let's take a closer look at the
individual bases...
2. Adenine
• Adenine and guanine are
purines. Adenine is often
represented by the capital letter
A. In DNA, its complementary
base is thymine. The chemical
formula of adenine is C​5H5N5.
In RNA, adenine forms bonds
with uracil.
• Adenine and the other bases
bond with phosphate groups
and either the sugar ribose or 2'-
deoxyribose to form nucleotides.
Adenine purine nitrogen base molecule.
Guanine
• Guanine is a purine represented by
the capital letter G. Its chemical
formula is C5H5N5O. In both DNA
and RNA, guanine bonds with
cytosine. The nucleotide formed by
guanine is guanosine.
• In the diet, purines are abundant in
meat products, particularly from
internal organs, such as liver,
brains, and kidneys. A smaller
amount of purines are found in
plants, such as peas, beans, and
lentils.
Guanine purine nitrogen base molecule.
Thymine
• Thymine is also known as 5-
methyluracil. Thymine is a
pyrimidine found in DNA, where
it binds to guanine. The symbol
for thymine is a capital letter T.
Its chemical formula is
C5H6N2O2. Its corresponding
nucleotide is thymidine.

Thymine pyrimidine nitrogen base molecule.

Cytosine
• Cytosine is represented by the
capital letter C. In DNA and RNA,
it binds with guanine. Three
hydrogen bonds form between
cytosine and guanine in the
Watson-Crick base pairing to
form DNA. The chemical formula
of cytosine is C4H4N2O2. The
nucleotide formed by cytosine is
cytidine.

Cytosine pyrimidine nitrogen base molecule.

Uracil
• Uracil may be considered to be
demethylated thymine. Uracil is
represented by the capital letter
U. Its chemical formula is
C4H4N2O2. In nucleic acids, it is
found in RNA bound to adenine.
Uracil forms the nucleotide
uridine.
• There are many other nitrogenous bases found in nature, plus the
molecules may be found incorporated into other compounds. For
example, pyrimidine rings are found in thiamine (vitamin B1) and
barbituates as well as in nucleotides. Pyrimidines are also found in
some meteorites, although their origin is still unknown. Other purines
found in nature include xanthine, theobromine, and caffeine.
• double ˈhelix
• a shape consisting of two parallel spirals that twist around the same centre, found
especially in the structure of DNA.
• double helix
• Each then acts as a template to which other simpler molecules become attached until
each has once more become a double helix.
• The entwined serpents forming a double helix gave birth to the Caduceus.
• Cobras are constantly depicted entwined in a double helix.
• If the ends of such non-dividing clone are held while it grows, then unexpectedly a
double helix appears.
• Thus each double helix becomes two double helices, with the two new doublets
remaining joined at the centromere.
• In the formation of the double helix, a total of 12 rotors are restricted per base pair
stack.
• These conformations influence the position of the phosphate group with respect to the
grooves of the double helix.
Review Base Pairing
• In DNA the base pairing is:
•A-T
•G-C
• In RNA, uracil takes the place of
thymine, so the base pairing is:
•A-U
•G-C
• The nitrogenous bases are in the interior of the DNA double helix,
with the sugars and phosphate portions of each nucleotide forming
the backbone of the molecule. When a DNA helix splits, like to
transcribe DNA, complementary bases attach to each exposed half so
identical copies can be formed. When RNA acts as a template to make
DNA, for translation, complementary bases are used to make the DNA
molecule using the base sequence.

• Because they are complementary to each other, cells require

approximately equal amounts of purine and pyrimidines. In order to
maintain a balance in a cell, production of both purines and
pyrimidines is self-inhibiting. When one is formed, it inhibits the
production of more of the same and activates production of its
counterpart.
 DNA Structure
• DNA is the cellular molecule that contains
instructions for the performance of all cell
functions. When a cell divides, its DNA is copied
and passed from one cell generation to the next
generation. DNA is organized into chromosomes
and found within the nucleus of our cells. It
contains the "programmatic instructions" for
cellular activities. When organisms produce
offspring, these instructions in are passed down
through DNA.

• DNA commonly exists as a double stranded

molecule with a twisted double helix shape. DNA is
composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar
backbone and the four nitrogenous bases: adenine
(A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In
double stranded DNA, adenine pairs with thymine
(A-T) and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C).

DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone

and the four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and thymine (T). OpenStax/
DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine
(C), and thymine (T). OpenStax/
 RNA Structure

RNA is composed of a phosphate-ribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil
• RNA is essential for the synthesis of proteins. Information contained within the
genetic code is typically passed from DNA to RNA to the resulting proteins. There
are several different types of RNA.

• Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the RNA transcript or RNA copy of the DNA message
produced during DNA transcription. Messenger RNA is translated to form
proteins.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) has a three dimensional shape and is necessary for the
translation of mRNA in protein synthesis.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of ribosomes and is also involved in
protein synthesis.
• MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that help to regulate gene expression.
• RNA most commonly exists as a single stranded molecule composed
of a phosphate-ribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases
adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil (U). When DNA is transcribed
into an RNA transcript during DNA transcription, guanine pairs with
cytosine (G-C) and adenine pairs with uracil (A-U).
Differences Between DNA and RNA
Composition

This image shows a comparison of a single-stranded RNA molecule and a double-stranded DNA molecule.
• The nucleic acids DNA and RNA differ in composition and structure. The differences are listed
as follows:

• DNA

• Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine

• Five-Carbon Sugar: Deoxyribose
• Structure: Double-stranded

• DNA is commonly found in its three dimensional, double helix shape. This twisted structure
makes it possible for DNA to unwind for DNA replication and protein synthesis.

• RNA

• Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil

• Five-Carbon Sugar: Ribose
• Structure: Single-stranded
• While RNA does not take on a double helix shape like DNA, this
molecule is able to form complex three dimensional shapes. This is
possible because RNA bases form complementary pairs with other
bases on the same RNA strand. The base pairing causes RNA to fold
forming various shapes.
• Cytosine is found in both DNA and RNA. Uracil is found only in RNA. Thymine is
normally found in DNA. Sometimes tRNA will contain some thymine as well as uracil.

• Nucleosides
• If a sugar, either ribose or 2-deoxyribose, is added to a nitrogen base, the resulting
compound is called a nucleoside. Carbon 1 of the sugar is attached to nitrogen 9 of a
purine base or to nitrogen 1 of a pyrimidine base. The names of purine nucleosides end
in -osine and the names of pyrimidine nucleosides end in -idine. The convention is to
number the ring atoms of the base normally and to use l', etc. to distinguish the ring
atoms of the sugar. Unless otherwise specificed, the sugar is assumed to be ribose. To
indicate that the sugar is 2'-deoxyribose, a d- is placed before the name.

• Adenosine
• Guanosine
• Inosine - the base in inosine is hypoxanthine
• Uridine
• Thymidine
• Cytidine
• Nucleotides
• Adding one or more phosphates to the sugar portion of a nucleoside results in a
nucleotide. Generally, the phosphate is in ester linkage to carbon 5' of the sugar.
If more than one phosphate is present, they are generally in acid anhydride
linkages to each other. If such is the case, no position designation in the name is
required. If the phosphate is in any other position, however, the position must be
designated. For example, 3'-5' cAMP indicates that a phosphate is in ester linkage
to both the 3' and 5' hydroxyl groups of an adenosine molecule and forms a cyclic
structure. 2'-GMP would indicate that a phosphate is in ester linkage to the 2'
hydroxyl group of a guanosine. Some representative names are:

• AMP = adenosine monophosphate = adenylic acid

• CDP = cytidine diphosphate
• dGTP = deoxy guanosine triphosphate
• dTTP = deoxy thymidine triphosphate (more commonly designated TTP)
• cAMP = 3'-5' cyclic adenosine monophosphate
Proteins

Immunoglobulin G is a type of protein known as an antibody. This is the most abundant immunoglobulin and is found in all
body fluids. Each Y-shaped molecule has two arms (top) that can bind to specific antigens, for instance bacterial or viral
proteins.
What Are Proteins?

• Proteins are very important molecules in cells. By weight, proteins are

collectively the major component of the dry weight of cells. They can
be used for a variety of functions from cellular support to cell
signaling and cellular locomotion. While proteins have many diverse
functions, all are typically constructed from one set of 20 amino acids.
Examples of proteins include antibodies, enzymes, and some types of
hormones (insulin).
• Amino Acids
• Most amino acids have the following structural properties:
• A carbon (the alpha carbon) bonded to four different groups:
• A hydrogen atom (H)
• A Carboxyl group (-COOH)
• An Amino group (-NH2)
• A "variable" group

Of the 20 amino acids that typically make up proteins, the "variable" group
determines the differences among the amino acids. All amino acids have the
hydrogen atom, carboxyl group and amino group bonds.
• Protein Structure
• There are two general classes of protein molecules: globular proteins and
fibrous proteins. Globular proteins are generally compact, soluble, and
spherical in shape. Fibrous proteins are typically elongated and insoluble.
Globular and fibrous proteins may exhibit one or more of four types of
protein structure. The four structure types are primary, secondary, tertiary,
and quaternary structure. A protein's structure determines its function. For
instance, structural proteins such as collagen and keratin are fibrous and
stringy. Globular proteins like hemoglobin, on the other hand, are folded
and compact. Hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, is an iron-containing
protein that binds oxygen molecules. Its compact structure is ideal for
traveling through narrow blood vessels.
• Polypeptide Chains
• Amino acids are joined together through dehydration synthesis to form a
peptide bond. When a number of amino acids are linked together by
peptide bonds, a polypeptide chain is formed. One or more polypeptide
chains twisted into a 3-D shape forms a protein.

•
Proteins consist of one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide chain consists of smaller sub-units or amino acids that are
linked together. Amino acids serve as the building blocks of polypeptides, and polypeptides serve as the building blocks of
proteins. Think of an individual amino acid as a paper clip.
DNA
• DNA is made of a string of nucleotide bases attached to one another by a
peptide bond. A single nucleotide contains three regions: A phosphate
group, a Carboxyl group and a base. Adjacent nucleotides attach to one
another by a phosphodiester bond. This forms between the phosphate
group of one nucleotide and the sugar group of another. The base groups
of the nucleotides are variable, they can be C, G, A, or T.
• DNA exists as a double helical structure. Two strands of DNA coil like a
spring to form an a-helical structure. The two strands interact via hydrogen
bonds. C bases are always opposite G bases and are held by three hydrogen
bonds. A bases are always opposite T bases and are held by two hydrogen
bonds. The two strands run anti-parallel to one another. This directionality
is important for recognition and processing my enzymes.
Chromosomes
• chromosome is a string of DNA wrapped around associated proteins
that give the connected nucleic acid bases a structure. During
interphase of the cell cycle, the chromosome exists in a loose
structure, so proteins can be translated from the DNA and the DNA
can be replicated. During mitosis and meiosis, the chromosome
becomes condensed, to be organized and separated. The substance
consisting of all the chromosomes in a cell and all their associated
proteins is known as chromatin. In prokaryotes, there is usually only a
single chromosome, which exists in a ring-like or linear shape. The
chromatin of most eukaryotic organisms consists of multiple
chromosomes, as described later in the article. Each chromosome
carries part of the genetic code necessary to produce an organism.
Function of a Chromosome
• The chromosome holds not only the genetic code, but many of the
proteins responsible for helping express it. Its complex form and
structure dictate how often genes can be translated into proteins, and
which genes are translated. This process is known as gene expression
and is responsible for creating organisms.
Chromosome Structure
• As seen in the graphic above, chromosomes have a very complex structure. DNA,
or deoxyribonucleic acid makes the base of the structure, as seen on the far left.
DNA is made of a two strings of nucleic acid base pairs. The base pairs in DNA are
cytosine, adenine, thymine, and guanine. The spiral structure formed by the two
strings of DNA is due to complimentary pairing between every base with its pair
on the opposite string. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with
cytosine. The opposite side of the bases form a phosphate-deoxyribose
backbone, which keeps the strands intact.
• As seen in the graphic above,
chromosomes have a very complex
structure. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic
acid makes the base of the structure,
as seen on the far left. DNA is made of
a two strings of nucleic acid base
pairs. The base pairs in DNA are
cytosine, adenine, thymine, and
guanine. The spiral structure formed
by the two strings of DNA is due to
complimentary pairing between every
base with its pair on the opposite
string. Adenine pairs with thymine
and guanine pairs with cytosine. The
opposite side of the bases form a
phosphate-deoxyribose backbone,
which keeps the strands intact.
DNA chemical structure
• When the DNA is duplicated, the strands are separated, and a polymerase
molecule builds a new string that corresponds to each side. In this way, the DNA
is perfectly replicated. This can be done artificially by a polymerase chain reaction
in which special enzymes and heat are used to separate and replicated the strings
a number of times, to produce many copies of the same DNA. This makes it much
easier to study any string of DNA, even whole chromosomes or genomes.
• After the cell has expressed and duplicated the DNA, cell division can occur. This
occurs in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but only eukaryotes condense their
DNA so it can be separated. Prokaryotic DNA is so simple that relatively few
structural proteins are associated with the chromosome. In eukaryotes, many
structural proteins are used.
• The DNA can wrap around one of these histones, giving it a wound structure. This
structure, and the associated histone, is known as the nucleosome. As seen in the
third picture from the left, these nucleosomes form “beads-on-a-string”. The
string becomes wound back and forth by another histone, histone H1, and
eventually fibers are produced. The next type of protein, scaffold proteins, start
to wind the fiber into a loose structure. When the chromosome must condense
during cell division, more scaffold proteins are activated, and the structure
becomes much denser. In fact, even with a microscope, individual chromosomes
cannot be discerned until near the middle of cell division cycles, when the
chromosome becomes very dense. This process is seen as the pictures progress
towards the right.
 Examples of Chromosome
• Prokaryote Replication
• When a single bacteria cell has reached a large enough size, it can reproduce
asexually. Although there are no membranes that separate individual organelles
in bacteria, the cell will duplicate its DNA and and special chemicals it needs to
survive. The DNA exists in a single chromosome, sometimes called a genophore,
which is replicated by the individual strands being separated and polymerase
building new, corresponding strands. The two chromosomes are separated into
individual cells, and the cells carry on their functions by creating proteins from
the DNA and interacting with the environment.
• Eukaryote Replication

• A much more complicated view of chromosomes is present in eukaryotes.

In eukaryotes, the DNA is replicated at the end of interphase, the part of
the cell cycle in which the cell grows and functions. Much like in the
prokaryotes, the DNA strands are separated and new strands are created by
enzymes. However, in eukaryotes, there are multiple chromosomes. The
new chromosomes remain connected at the centromere, a structure that
allows microtubules to connect and holds chromosomes together. These
are now known as sister chromatids because they are identical copies.
These chromatids can undergo some variation during meiotic cell division,
when recombination can occur.
• Homologous Chromosomes Definition

• Chromosomes are the genetic information coded into human DNA. Each person
has 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 chromosomes in total. Homologous
chromosomes are essentially similar in size, and carry the same genetic
information.
• Examples of Homologous Chromosomes

• Homologous chromosomes primarily occur in two scenarios:

• Cell division

• Reproduction
• Females and Males

• Single-chromosome gametes, or sex cells, are more common examples of

homologous chromosomes in action. When the body undergoes meiosis, or
the creation of sex cells, chromosomes do not divide from replicated pairs.
Instead, the original chromosome pair and its copy split in two. What
results are four, single-chromosome gametes. They are stored in male
sperm and the female egg, respectively.
• When a female becomes pregnant, she combines one of her eggs with a
male sperm. On a genetic level, her 22-chromosome set combines with her
male partner’s 22-chromosome set. Since each chromosome from the
female’s 22-chromosome set is similar in size to, and carries similar genetic
information as, the male’s 22-chromosome set, they are homologous.
Genes
• A gene is the fundamental, physical, and functional unit of heredity. It
is because a gene is comprised of nucleotides (on a specific site on a
chromosome) that is responsible for the physical and heritable
characteristics or phenotype of an organism. ... The genes make up
the sequences of DNA (genotypes).
• Genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes that contain
the instructions for protein production.
• Genotype
• In diploid organisms, alleles come in pairs. One allele is inherited from the father
and the other from the mother. Alleles determine an individual's genotype, or
gene composition. The allele combination of the genotype determines the traits
that are expressed, or the phenotype. A genotype producing the phenotype of a
straight hairline, for example, differs from the genotype resulting in a V-shaped
hairline.

• Genetic Inheritance
Genes are inherited through both asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
In asexual reproduction, resulting organisms are genetically identical to a single
parent. Examples of this type of reproduction include budding, regeneration, and
parthenogenesis.
 Types of Inheritance.

• In complete dominance inheritance, one allele for a particular gene is dominant

and completely masks the other allele for the gene.
• In incomplete dominance, neither allele is completely dominant over the other
resulting in a phenotype that is a mixture of both parent phenotypes.
• In co-dominance, both alleles for a trait are fully expressed.
• Not all traits are determined by a single gene. Some traits are determined by
more than one gene and are therefore known as polygenic traits. Some genes are
located on sex chromosomes and are called sex-linked genes. There are a number
of disorders that are caused by abnormal sex-linked genes including hemophilia
and color blindness.

Genetic Variation

• Genetic variation is a change in the genes that occur in organisms in a population.

This variation typically occurs through DNA mutation, gene flow (movement of
genes from one population to another) and sexual reproduction. In unstable
environments, populations with genetic variation are typically able to adapt to
changing situations better than those that do not contain genetic variation.
• Gene Mutations
• A gene mutation is an alteration in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA. This
change can affect a single nucleotide pair or larger segments of a chromosome.
Changing gene segment sequences most often results in non-functioning
proteins.

• Some mutations can result in disease, while others may have no negative impact
on or may even benefit an individual. Still, other mutations may result in unique
traits such as dimples, freckles, and multicolored eyes. Gene mutations are most
commonly the result of environmental factors (chemicals, radiation, ultraviolet
light) or errors that occur during cell division (mitosis and meiosis).