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Telephone Service

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 PSTN
• A Public Switched Telephone Network, or
PSTN for short, refers to a
telecommunications network which allows
subscribers at different sites to
communicate by voice

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 The Traditional
Telephone System
 Customer Premises
 Local Loop
 Switching Office
– End Office
 Trunk Lines

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 Customer Premises
Equipment
 Private Branch Exchanges (PBXs)
– Internal telephone network
– PBX is the switch
– Wiring to individual telephones
– Telephones themselves
– Lines to carriers for incoming, outgoing calls

Company
Carriers
Phones
PBX 7
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 local loop
• The local loop is the physical wiring that
connects you to the public switched
telephone network (PSTN)

Local Loop

Customer Premises Switching Office

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 Switching Offices
 Connect Telephone Callers
– Can support many simultaneous connections

Switching Office
Local
Loop

Connection

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 Trunk Lines
 Connect switching offices
 All lines except local loop
Trunk
Trunk Lines
Line

Local
Local
Loop
Loop
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Figure Public switched telephone network 12
 Sound Waves
• Sound is converted into electricity by a telephone
and then transmitted as an analog signal.
• These waves have 3 fundamental characteristics:
– Amplitude, meaning the height (intensity) of the wave
– Frequency, which is the number of waves that pass in a
single second and is measured in Hertz (cycles/second)
(wavelength, the length of the wave from crest to crest,
is related to frequency.).
– Phase is a third characteristic that describes the point in
the wave’s cycle at which a wave begins and is
measured in degrees. (For example, changing a wave’s
cycle from crest to trough corresponds to a 180 degree
phase shift).
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Figure 6-2 Sound wave
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 Modulation
• Modulating a wave means changing one or
more of its fundamental characteristics to
encode information.
• The unmodulated wave used for this is called a
carrier wave.
• There are three basic ways to modulate a carrier
wave:
– Amplitude Modulation
– Frequency Modulation
– Phase Modulation
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 Amplitude Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation (AM), also called
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), means
changing the height of the wave to encode
data.
• Figure 6-3a shows a simple case of
amplitude modulation in which one bit is
encoded for each carrier wave change.
– A high amplitude means a bit value of 1
– Zero amplitude means a bit value of 0

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Figure 6-3a Amplitude modulation
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 Sending Multiple Bits Symbol
• Each modification of the carrier wave to encode
information is called a symbol.
• By using a more complicated information coding
system, it is possible to encode more than 1
bit/symbol.
• Figure 6-3b gives an example of amplitude
modulation using 4 amplitude levels,
corresponding to 2 bits/symbol.
• Increasing the possible number of symbols from 4
to 8 corresponds with encoding 3 bits/symbol, 16
levels to 4 bits, and so on.

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Figure 6-3b Two-bit amplitude modulation
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 Frequency Modulation
• Frequency Modulation (FM), also called
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), means changing
the frequency of the carrier wave to encode data.
• Figure 6-4 shows a simple case of frequency
modulation in which one bit is encoded for each
carrier wave change.
– Changing the carrier wave to a higher frequency
encodes a bit value of 1
– No change in the carrier wave frequency means a bit
value of 0

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Figure 6-4 Frequency Modulation
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 Phase Modulation
• Phase refers to the point in each wave cycle at
which the wave begins. Phase Modulation (PM) or
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) means changing the
carrier wave’s phase to carry data.
• Figure 6-5 shows a simple case of phase
modulation in which one bit is encoded for each
carrier wave change.
– A 180o phase shift corresponds to a bit value of 1
– No phase shift means a bit value of 0
• Two bits per symbol could be encoded using phase
modulation using 4 phase shifts such as 0o, 90o,
180o and 270o.
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Figure 6-5 Phase Modulation
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
• QAM is a widely used encoding schemes that
encodes multiple bits per symbol by combining
amplitude and phase modulation.
• Symbols are also chosen to minimize the chance
they might be mistaken for another one.
• For example, two symbols with similar phase shifts
and the same amplitude could be mistaken for one
another.
• Trellis coded modulation (TCM) takes this idea
further by adding increasing the number of bits per
symbol, then restricting the use of symbols that
might be mistaken for one another, greatly reducing
the error rate created by noise.
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 Digital Transmission of Analog Voice
• The analog voice signal created by the sender’s
telephone is converted a digital signal using a
codec (coder/decoder).
• A second codec later converts the digital signal
back to an analog one at the receiver’s end.
• The codec converts the incoming analog signal to a
digital signal by taking repeated samples of the
analog signal (see Figure 6-6).
• Each sample is then rounded off to a whole
number and then encoded as a binary number.
• The resulting stream of binary values is sent as a
digital transmission over the telephone network.
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Figure 6-6 Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) 26
 How Telephones Transmit Voice
• The telephone network uses a digitization
technique called Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).
• PCM samples the incoming analog signal
8000 samples/second using 8 bit samples.
• The resulting 64,000 bits per second signal,
called a DS-0, that is used throughout the
telephone network to send digital
transmissions of voice transmissions.
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 How Instant Messenger Transmits Voice
(Technical Focus 6-1)
• Instead of PCM, Instant Messaging uses an
alternative technique called ADPCM, adaptive
differential pulse code modulation.
• ADPCM encodes the differences between samples.
Instead of 8 bits/sample, ADPCM uses only 4
bits/sample, generally at 8000 samples/second. This
allows a voice signal to be sent at 32 kbps, which
makes it possible to for IM to send voice signals as
digital signals using POTS-based analog phone lines.
• ADPCM can sample at lower rates of 8 or 16 kbps,
but these produce lower quality voice signals.
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 Multiplexing (Figure 6-7)
• Multiplexing combining several lower speed
circuits into a higher speed one.
• The advantage to is that multiplexing is cheaper
since fewer network circuits are needed.
• Inverse Multiplexing, is works in the opposite
way, and breaks up a higher speed circuit into two
or more lower speed ones (see Figure 6-7).
• There are four categories of multiplexing:
– Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
– Time division multiplexing (TDM)
– Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM)
– Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
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Figure 6-7 Multiplexed circuit
and inverse multiplexing 30
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• FDM works by making a number of smaller channels from
a larger frequency band. FDM is sometimes referred to as
dividing the circuit “horizontally”.
• In order to prevent interference between channels, unused
frequency bands called guardbands are used to separate
the channels. Because of the use of guardbands, there is
also significant wasted capacity on an FDM circuit.
• CATV uses FDM. FDM was also commonly used to
multiplex telephone signals before digital transmission
became common and is still used on some older
transmission lines.

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 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• TDM allows multiple channels to be used by

allowing the channels to send data by taking turns.
TDM is sometimes referred to as dividing the
circuit “vertically.”
• With TDM, time on the circuit is shared equally
with each channel getting a specified time slot,
whether or not it has any data to send.
• TDM is more efficient than FDM, since TDM
doesn’t use guardbands, so the entire capacity can
be divided up between the data channels.
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 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
(STDM)
• STDM is designed to make use of the idle time created when
terminals are not using the multiplexed circuit.
• Like regular TDM, STDM uses time slots, but the time slots
are not fixed. Instead, they are used as needed by the different
terminals on the multiplexed circuit.
• Since the source of a data sample is not identified by the time
slot it occupies, additional addressing information must be
added to each sample.
• If all terminals try to use the multiplexed circuit intensively,
response time delays can occur. The multiplexer also needs to
contain memory to store data in case more data samples come
in than its outgoing circuit capacity can handle.
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Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• With Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM),
data is transmitted at several different frequencies
over the same optical fiber, typical transmitted at
622 Mbps.
• A new version of WDM, Dense WDM or DWDM
permits up to 40 circuits, with each transmitting at
a rate of 10 Gbps, making single fiber aggregate
data rates of 400 Gbps possible.
• Recently, a new version of DWDM has been
announced capable of carrying 128 circuits at 10
Gbps, or an aggregate transmission rates of 1.28
Terabits per second.
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Circuit-Switched Networks

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 Circuit-Switched Networks

• The oldest and simplest MAN/WAN

approach.
• Circuits provided by common carriers like
AT&T and Ameritech using the PSTN.
• An example of a switched circuit is using a
modem to dial-up and connect to an ISP.
• Two basic types in use today are: POTS and
ISDN.

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 Circuit-Switched Network Topology

• Uses a cloud architecture, meaning that

users connect to a network and what
happens inside of the network “cloud” is
hidden from the user (see Figure 6-8).
• A user using a computer and a modem dials
the number of a another computer and
creates a temporary circuit between the two.
• When the communications session is
completed, the circuit is disconnected.

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Figure 6-8 Circuit-switched service 38