PSTN and Teletraffic engineering

Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTNs)

Telecommunication is the communication of voice or data over long distances using public switched telephone
network (PSTN).

To setup connection between subscribers, it consists of: transmission systems, switching system and signalling
systems.

Show the path of wired connection

What are the devices/Stages involved to a wired connection?

Telephone exchange
MDF
Cabinet
DP
Telephone
What is a DP?
A 10 pair or 5 pair cable is laid from Cabinet to Distribution point (DP). That means, there
are 10 loops or 5 loops in a DP. When a new connection is provided, a pair of cable is drawn
from DP to home. That means normally 10 or 5 telephone new connections can be provided
from a DP.

What is a Cabinet?

50 pair, 100 pair, 200 pair etc. multi pair cables are drawn from MDF to cabinet.
From the cabinet 10 pair, 5 pair cables are drown up to Distribution Points (DPs).
Primary cable - MDF to cabinet cable is called primary cable.
Secondary Cable - Cabinet to DP cable is called Secondary Cable.
Primary cable to Secondary cable jumpering is done at the cabinet.

What is MDF?
MDF stands for Main Distribution Frame.

MDF is the interface between telephone exchange and telephone cables. At the time of
installation of exchange all telephone channels (line cards) are terminated at the MDF.

The multi pair telephone cables are terminates of the other side.

When a new connection is given, the exchange side relevant point and cable side relevant
point are connected by using another small cable. This small cable is called a jumper wire.
MDF is a passive device. (No need of electrical power to operate.)

 Local networks which connect subscribers and local exchanges.

 Function networks, which interconnect a group of local exchanges serving an area and
a trunk exchange
 The trunk network which provides long distance connections nationally and
internationally.

What is the function of telephone exchange?

When a telephone dials a number, it is received by the telephone exchange and analyses the
number and connect to the relevant telephone via the remote exchange.

Switching System
The switching centers receives the control signals, messages or conversations and forwards to the
required destination. A switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged and
controlled in such a way as to setup a communication path between any two distant points.

Manual Board
Initially the telephone was commercially used by the Manual Board.
  All telephones are physically connected to manual board by a pair of copper cables. If
A wants to call F, they are connected by the operator by using a patch code.
 Upon lifting the telephone receiver by a subscriber, the operator was alerted by using
a lighting bulb and subscriber tell her who you wished to speak to.
 Then operator would take a wire cored (Patch cored) and plug to the subscriber A
socket and the other end to subscriber F socket and send a ringing tone to him.
 When they completed the call, either party is hang up receiver and operator can be
detected it by lighting off the bulb.

The following are the important points to note on above process.

a. Maintain subscriber information
b. Identity when subscriber needs to get a call
c. Connect the two subscribers need to communicate
d. Send the ringing tone to called subscriber
e. Identify when the conversation is over
f. Terminate the connection when the conversation is over
g. Take down the billing information

The above seven Functions can be categorized

 Subscriber & billing information - a, g
 Signaling - b, d, e
 Switching - c, f

Switching and Signaling plays a vital role in PSTN networks.

Fig. shows the classification of switching system.

In manual exchanges
 A human operator and the elements like switches, plugs and sacks were used to connect two
subscribers.
Electromechanical exchanges
 Till 1940, different electromechanical switching system were invented, of which strowger
switching system and cross bar switching system were still popular.
Electronic systems (ESS)
 The Electronic Switching systems are operated with the help of a processor or a computer
which control the switching timings.
 The instructions are programmed and stored on a processor or computer that control the
operations. This method of storing the programs on a processor or computer is called the
Stored Program Control (SPC) technology.

Basic Elements of Switching System

Space division switch

The space division provides fixed path for the entire duration of a call.

Time division switch

 The incoming and outgoing signals when received and re-transmitted in a different time slot,
is called Time Division Switching.

Time multiplexed switching

 N incoming trunks & N outgoing trunks

 M samples per frame
 Frame duration: 125us
 Time slot duration: 125/M us
 Number of speech samples switched in one frame time: NM
 Number of speech samples switched in one time slot: N

Telecommunication Network
The switching stations provide connection between different subscribers.
The switching systems are connected using lines called the Trunks.
The lines that run to the Subscriber premises are called the Subscriber Lines.

Basics of a Switching System

Inlets and Outlets

The set of input circuits of an exchange are called Inlets and the set of output circuits are called the
Outlets.

The primary function of a switching system is to establish an electrical path between a given inlet-
outlet pair.

Folded Network

As one connection can be given to one line per time, only N/2 connections are established for N
inlets of a folded network. The switching network may be designed to provide N/2 simultaneous
switching paths, in which case the network is said to be non-blocking. Such a network can be called
as Non-blocking network.

In general, it rarely happens that all the possible conversations take place simultaneously. It may,
hence, be economical to design a switching network that has as many simultaneous switching paths
as the average number of conversations expected.

It may also occasionally happen that when a subscriber requests a connection, there are no
switching paths free in the network, and hence he is denied connection.

In a blocking network, the number of simultaneous switching paths is less than the maximum
number of simultaneous conversations that can take place. The probability that a user may get
blocked is called blocking probability.

All the switching exchanges are designed to meet an estimated maximum average simultaneous
traffic, usually known as busy hour traffic.

Non-Folded Networks
All the inlet/outlet connections may be used for inter-exchange transmission. In such a case, the
exchange does not support local subscribers and is called a transit (or tandem) exchange.

Signalling techniques

Signalling is the process of generating and exchanging information among components of a

telecommunication system to establish, monitor or release connections and to control related
network and system operations.

Signaling must be exchanged

- between subscribers
- between subscriber and network
- within the network
- between networks

Earliest uses of signaling

• Call request from switch
• Providing switch with routing information
• Alerting destination node by switch
• Providing status information and call supervision
• Network line management.

Call request from switch

• Simplest arrangement is DC loop sensing by switch
• Subscriber goes off – hook on the last mile connection
• Completion of DC loop alerts switch that subscriber wants service.

Providing switch with routing information

• Subscriber must inform exchange about the destination node he wants to connect to
• Methods used
• E & M (pulse dialing)
• DTMF (tone dialing)
• Subscriber cannot communicate beyond his local switch until call is set up
• Call set up is the responsibility of the switch.

Alerting destination node

• If the exchange was successful in call set up, it must now alert the destination node
• This is the purpose of ringing
• Ringing is generated by local switch of destination node
• Most common method is to switch on-off a current loop
• Subscriber equipment can sense this and provide indication in many ways.
Call supervision
Once end to end connection is set –up
• switch needs signaling to do other functions
– Providing status information
– Call supervision (e.g. for billing)

Signaling in 24-Channel PCM System

• Used in North America and Japan

• Multiplexes 24 voice channels
• Time slot for each channel is allocated 8 bits
(24 * 8)  1
• Bit rate = 125
= 1.544 Mbps

Frame Structure

Additionally, a 193rd bit is added to mark the end of one frame and the beginning of the
next.

A frame completely defines all channels

• To define a channel, both voice sample value and signaling is required
• Signaling of each channel is carried in that time slot itself (channel associated
signaling)
• Hence the reception of a frame is sufficient to define all channels at the de multiplexer
end.

Signaling is 30 – Channel PCM

• A CCITT (Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy)

standard
• Widely used in Europe, Middle East and Asia
• Has 32 time slots within a frame of 125 µs
• 30 Time slots are allocated for traffic.
• Time slot for each channel is allocated 8 bits
• Bit rate = (32 * 8)/125
= 2.048 Mbps
Frame Structure

Each time slot has 8 bits

 Time slot 0 is dedicated for Frame Alignment

 A traffic time slot has a sign bit, a 3 bit segment and a 4 bit value giving 256 values
 Time slot 16 is dedicated for Common Channel Signaling of two channels. 4
signaling bits are allocated to 1 channel
 Signaling is carried in a separate time slot (channel dissociated signaling)

Separation of voice and signaling

• The E system was an early example where signaling was dissociated from the voice
channel
• This paved the way for the concept of common channel signaling.

CCITT CCS #7 System

The SS7 standard defines the procedures and protocol by which network elements in the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) exchange information over a digital signaling
network. It enables wireless (cellular) and wireline call setup, routing, and control.

The SS7 network and protocol are used for:

 Basic call setup, management, and tear down
 Toll-free (800/888) and toll (900) wireline services
 Enhanced call features such as call forwarding, calling party name/number display,
and three-way calling
 Efficient and secure worldwide telecommunications
 SMS (Short Message Service)

SS7 messages are 56 or 64 kbps bidirectional channels called (signaling links) exchanged
between network elements. Signalling occurs out-of-band on dedicated channels rather than
in-band on voice channels.
Signalling Modes

Associated Signalling
With this type of signaling, the signaling link directly parallels associated voice trunks. Thus,
dedicated links must be provisioned between every interconnected switch.

Non-Associated Signaling
With this type of signaling, voice/data and signaling are carried on separate, logical paths.

Quasi-Associated Signaling
This type of signaling employs a minimal number of nodes, thus minimizing delays. Quasi-
associated signaling is the preferred signaling mode for SS7.

Signaling Points
All nodes in the SS7 network are called Signaling Points (SPs)
Each SP is identified by a unique address called a Point Code (PC).
SPs have the ability to read a Point Code and determine if the message is for that node and
the ability to route SS7 messages to another SP.
There are three kinds of signaling points in the SS7 network

• SSP (Service Switching Point or Signal Switching Point)

• STP (Signal Transfer Point)
• SCP (Service Control Point)

Service Switching Point (SSP)

 SSPs are switches, for example, Class 5 (local) and Class 4 (tandem) with SS7
interfaces.
 SSPs convert global title digits (i.e. a dialed number) from a subscriber line to SS7
signaling Messages.
 SSPs setup, manage and release voice circuits required to make a call.
 An SSP’s function is to use a global title to determine how to connect a call using its
routing table.

Signal Transfer Point (STP)

 An STP is a router and/or a gateway in the SS7 network.
 Messages are not originated by an STP.
 STPs switch SS7 messages between signaling points.
 If an originating SSP does not know the address of a destination SSP, the STP must
provide it using Global Title Translation.
 STPs also provide traffic and usage measurements.

Service Control Point (SCP)

 An SCP provides application access. It is an interface to applications such as
databases.
 A primitive is an interface that provides access from one level of a protocol to another
level.
 The protocol used to access and interface a database application is TCAP

SS7 Signaling Links

All SPs (signaling points) are connected using (typically) pairs of Links.

Type A — Access Links (used to connect SSPs to STPs or STPs to SCPs)

Type B—Bridge Links (used to connect paired STPs to other paired STPs).

Type C—Cross Links (used to connect paired STPs)

C link is used only when an STP has no other route available to a destination signaling point
due to link failure(s).

Type D—Diagonal Links (used to connect paired STPs at one in the hierarchy to paired STPs
at another level in the hierarchy)

A “D” (diagonal) link connects a secondary (local or regional) STP pair to a primary (for
example, inter-network gateway) STP pair in a quad-link configuration.

Type E—Extended Links (connects SSPs to alternate or remote STPs for increased resiliance
and load sharing)
An “E” (extended) link connects an SSP to an alternate STP. E links provide an alternate
signaling path if an SSP’s home STP cannot be reached via an A link.

Type F—Fully Associated Links (used to connect SSPs when significant traffic flows
between them)

An “F” (fully associated) link connects two signaling end points (i.e., SSPs and SCPs).

Signalling Point Code (SPC)

A unique number given to identify a node in an SS7 network
The STPs use this number in the packets to route them

SS7 Protocol Layers

Like most modern protocols, the SS7 protocol is layered.

SS7 Protocol Stack.

Physical Layer MTP (Message transfer part) Layer 1
This defines the physical and electrical characteristics of the signaling links of the SS7
network. Signaling links utilize DS–0 channels and carry raw signaling data at a rate of 56
kbps or 64 kbps

Data Link Layer MTP

 The layer 2 portion provides link-layer functionality.
 It ensures that the two end points of a signaling link can reliably exchange signaling
messages.
 It incorporates such capabilities as error checking, flow control, and sequence
checking.

Network Layer MTP

 The layer 3 portion extends the functionality provided by MTP level 2 to provide
network layer functionality.
 It ensures that messages can be delivered between signaling points across the SS7
network regardless of whether they are directly connected.
 It includes such capabilities as node addressing, routing, alternate routing, and
congestion control

Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP)

The MTP can only receive and deliver messages from a node as a whole; it does not deal with
software applications within a node.

While MTP network-management messages and basic call-setup messages are addressed to a
node as a whole, other messages are used by separate applications (repeat dialing and call
return).

ISDN User Part (ISUP)

• Used to set up, manage and tear down calls
• Types
– IAM (Initial Address Message)
– ACM (Address Complete Message)
– ANM (Answer Message)
– REL (Release Message)
– RLC (Release Complete Message).

ISUP Call initiation