Components of public telephone

network
• Subscribers: The devices that attach to the
network. E.g telephones.
• Local loop: The link between the subscriber and
the network, also referred to as the subscriber
loop.
• Almost all local loop connections used twisted-
pair wire.
• The length of a local loop is typically in a range
from a few kilometers to a few tens of kilometers.
• Exchanges: The switching centers in the
network. A switching center that directly
supports subscribers is known as an end
office.
• Typically, an end office will support many
thousands of subscribers in a localized area.
• Trunks: The branches between exchanges.
Trunks carry multiple voice frequency circuits
using either FDM or synchronous TDM.
• Subscribers connect directly to an end office,
which switches traffic between subscribers
and between a subscriber and other
exchanges.
• The other exchanges are responsible for
routing and switching traffic between end
offices.
Signaling System #7 (SS7)
 Setting Up Connections
Manually
• Human Intervention
• Telephone
– Voice commands &
switchboard operators
• Transport Networks
– Order forms & dispatching
of craftpersons
Automatically
• Management Interface
– Operator at console sets
up connections at various
switches
• Automatic signaling
– Request for connection
generates signaling
messages that control
connection setup in
switches
 Why is signaling needed?
• In telephony, there are user plane and control plane.
• Control plane involves signaling system #7
• Signaling N/W enables telephone switches (and now
packet switches) to communicate directly with one
another and share information needed to process any
type of call autonomously.
• For call setup and teardown,
• For accessing remote databases.
• To provide routing and billing information for all
telephone services
 Signaling Functions
• Audible communication with the subscriber, including dial tone, ringing
tone, busy signal, and so on.
• Transmission of the number dialed to switching offices that will attempt to
complete a connection.
• Transmission of information between switches indicating that a call cannot
be completed.
• Transmission of information between switches indicating that a call has
ended and that the path can be disconnected.
• A signal to make a telephone ring.
• Transmission of information used for billing purposes.
• Transmission of information giving the status of equipment or trunks in
the network. This information may be used for routing and maintenance
purposes.
• Transmission of information used in diagnosing and isolating system
failures.
 Use of control signaling in telephony
• consider a typical telephone connection sequence from one line to
another in the same central office.
1. Prior to the call, both telephones are not in use (on-hook). The call
begins when one subscriber lifts the receiver (off-hook); this action is
automatically signaled to the end office switch.
2. The switch responds with an audible dial tone, signaling the subscriber
that the number may be dialed.
3. The caller dials the number, which is communicated as a called address
to the switch.
4. If the called subscriber is not busy, the switch alerts that subscriber to
an incoming call by sending a ringing signal, which causes the telephone to
ring.
5. Feedback is provided to the calling subscriber by the switch:
a) If the called subscriber is not busy, the switch returns an audible ringing
tone to the caller while the ringing signal is being sent to the called
subscriber.
b) If the called subscriber is busy, the switch sends an
audible busy signal to the caller.
c) If the call cannot be completed through the switch, the
switch sends an audible "reorder" message to the caller.
6. The called party accepts the call by lifting the receiver
(off-hook), which is automatically signaled to the switch.
7. The switch terminates the ringing signal and the audible
ringing tone, and establishes a connection between the two
subscribers.
8. The connection is released when either subscriber hangs
up.
 Signaling Network
• Common Channel Signaling (CCS) #7 deployed in 1970s to control call setup
• Protocol stack developed to support signaling
• Signaling network based on highly reliable packet switching network
• Processors & databases attached to signaling network enabled many new services:
caller id, call forwarding, call waiting, user mobility
Internodal Signaling
Signaling System 7
Access Signaling Dial
tone STP STP SCP

STP STP
SSP SSP
Signaling Network

Transport Network

SSP = service switching point (signal to message)

STP = signal transfer point (packet switch)
SCP = service control point (processing)
 Signaling System Protocol Stack
• Lower 3 layers ensure
Application layer
delivery of messages to
signaling nodes
Presentation layer TUP TCAP ISUP • SCCP allows messages to
be directed to
Session layer
applications
Transport layer SCCP • TCAP defines messages &
protocols between
Network layer MTP level 3
applications
• ISUP performs basic call
setup & release
Data link layer MTP level 2
• TUP instead of ISUP in
Physical layer MTP level 1 some countries

ISUP = ISDN user part MTP = message transfer part

SSCP = signaling connection control part TCAP = transaction capabilities part
TUP = telephone user part
• The SS7 network interconnects thousands of
telephone company providers all over the
world into one common signaling network.
 Signaling methods
• Conventional signaling
• In-band signaling
• Out-of-band signaling
• Common Channel Signaling
 Conventional Signaling
• DC signaling relies on a DC current to signal the distant
end.
• The simplest example of DC signaling is used in
telephony between the subscriber and the local end
office.
• When a subscriber goes off-hook, a DC current from
the central office is allowed to flow through the
telephone (the switch-hook provides the contact
closure between the two wire interface) and back to
the central office.
• The central office switch uses a DC current detector to
determine when a connection is being requested.
 In-Band Signaling
• In-band signaling is used when DC signaling is not
possible, such as in tandem offices.
• In-band signaling uses tones in place of a DC
current. These tones may be single frequency (SF)
tones, multifrequency (MF) tones, or DTMF.
• The tones are transmitted with the voice.
• Because these tones must be transmitted over
the same facility as the voice, they must be within
the voice band (0 to 4 kHz).
• There is the possibility of false signaling when
voice frequencies duplicate signaling tones.
 Out-of-Band Signaling
• Out-of-band signaling has not shared the popularity and
widespread usage of SF signaling.
• Out-of-band signaling was designed for analog carrier systems,
which do not use the full 4 kHz bandwidth of the voice circuit.
• These carriers use up to 3.5 kHz and can send tones in the 3.7 kHz
band without worrying about false signaling.
• In other words, some frequencies within the 4 kHz bandwidth are
left as “buffers” and are not used for anything.
• This is where out-of-band signaling takes place, using audible tones.
• It is called out-of-band signaling because the signaling takes place
outside of the voice frequency bands; however, it is still sent on the
same facility as the voice.
• Out-of-band signaling is an analog technology and is of no
advantage today.
 Drawbacks of in-channel signaling
• The information transfer rate is quite limited with
in-channel signaling.
• With in-band signals, the voice channel being
used is only available for control signals when
there are no voice signals on the circuit.
• With out-of-band signals, a very narrow
bandwidth is available.
• With such limits, it is difficult to accommodate, in
a timely fashion, any but the simplest form of
control messages.
 Common Channel
Signaling (CCS)
• SS7 and ISDN are based on CCS.
• control signals are carried over paths completely
independent of the voice channels.
• By removing the signaling from the voice network, and
placing it on a network of its own, the voice circuit
remains available for a longer period of time.
• This means the availability of voice circuits is higher
and the need for additional circuits decreases.
• The facilities used for signaling provide signaling for
many voice circuits, hence the name CCS.
• Signaling between the subscriber and the
central office includes the calling party
number, which is forwarded to the called
party and displayed before the phone is even
answered.
• Interoffice signaling now includes information
obtained from regional databases, pertaining
to the type of service a subscriber may have or
billing information.
• Without SS7, number portability would be impossible.
• Local Number Portability (LNP) is a service mandated
by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
• If a subscriber decides to change to a new carrier
offering local service in his or her area.
• Changing telephone companies would require
surrendering your old telephone number and receiving
a new number from the new carrier.
• With number portability, subscribers can keep their old
numbers and still change carriers.
• In addition to database access, the SS7 protocol provides
the means for switching equipment to communicate with
other switching equipment at remote sites.
• If a caller dials a number that is busy, the caller may elect to
invoke a feature such as automatic callback.
• When the called party becomes available, the network will
ring the caller’s phone. When the caller answers, the called
party phone is then rung.
• This feature relies on the capabilities of SS7 to send
messages from one switch to another switch, allowing the
two systems to invoke features within each switch without
setting up a circuit between the two systems.
• Cellular networks use many features requiring switching
equipment to communicate with each other over a data
communications network.
• Seamless roaming is one such feature of the cellular
network that relies on the SS7 protocol.
• Cellular providers use the SS7 network to share subscriber
information from their home location registers (HLRs), so
cellular subscribers no longer have to register with other
service providers when they travel to other areas.
• Cellular providers can access each other’s databases and
share the subscriber information so that subscribers can
roam seamlessly from one network to another.