Chapter 1 Functions and Limits

1.3 Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves1.4

 Slope of a Curve

We define the slope of a curve at a point P as the slope of the tangent at a

point P on a curve.
1.We start with the slope of the secant PQ;
2.Investigate the limiting value of the secant slope as Q approaches P along the curve;
3.If the limit exist, take it to the slope of the curve at P and define the tangent to the
curve at P to be the line through P with the slope.
 Example

Find the slope of the parabola y=x2 at the point P(2, 4). Write an equation
for the tangent to the parabola at this point.

Solution:
 Instantaneous Rates of Changes and Tangent Lines

Figure of the previous example.

Note:
•The instantaneous rates of change were found to be the values of the
Average rates of change, as the time interval of length h approached 0.
•The average rate of change corresponds to the slope of a secant line;
the instantaneous rate corresponds to the slope of the tangent line as the
independent variable approaches a fixed value.
 1.4 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws

Many ideas of calculus originated with the following two geometric

problems:
Traditionally, that portion of calculus arising from the tangent line
problem is called differential calculus and that arising from the
area problem is called integral calculus

• Tangent lines and limits

• Areas and limits

• Decimals and limits*

 Limits

The most basic use of limits is to describe how a function behaves as

the independent variable approaches a given value.

For example, let us examine the behavior of the function

f ( x) = x 2 - x + 1

for x values closer and closer to 2.

We can see that the values of f(x) get closer and closer to 3 as values
of x are selected closer and closer to 2 on either side of 2.
 Limits
We describe this by saying that the “limit of x 2 - x + 1 is 3 as x
approaches 2 from either side”, and we write
lim( x 2 - x + 1) = 3
x �2
 Limits (An Informal View)

Note: Since x is different from a, the value of f at a or even whether f is

defined at a, has not bearing on the limit L
 x2 -1
Ex: How does the function lim behave near x=1?
x �1 x - 1

Solution:
Example
Example

Limit of the identity function

lim f ( x) = lim x = x0
x � x0 x � x0

Limit of the constant function

lim f ( x) = lim k = k
x � x0 x � x0
 Example

Discuss the behavior of the following functions as x0.

�1 0, x �0
�
0,
� x < 0 � , x � 0 �
( a ) U ( x) = � (b) g ( x) = �x (c ) f ( x) = � 1
1, x �0
� � sin , x > 0
�
�0, x = 0 � x
The Limit Laws
 Examples

Find lim( x3 + 3x - 2).

x �4

Solution:
 3x 2 - 1
Example, Find lim
x�1 x + 2

Solution:

Find lim x 2 + 5
Example: x �5

Solution:
Theorems
 Examples

For example, Find lim( x 6

+ 3 x 4
- 1) 2
.
x �4

Solution:

3x 2 - 1
Example, Find lim
x�1 x + 2

Solution:
 Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically

When p(x)/q(x) is a rational function for which p (a) =0 and q(a)=0, the
numerator and denominator must have one or more common
factors of x – a.

In this case, the limit of p(x)/q(x) as x  a can be found by canceling

all common factors of x – a first. Here are some examples…
For example,
x2 -1
Find xlim
� -1 x + 1

Solution:
 x2 + x - 6
Example: Find lim
x �2 x-2

Solution:

x 2 + 100 - 10
Example: Find lim
x �0 x2

Solution:
The Sandwich Theorem
 Example

2 2
Given that 1 - x �u ( x) �1 + x for all x �0
4 2
Find limxc u(x), no matter how complicated u is.

Solution:
 Examples
Find lim sin q and lim cos q
x �0 x �0

(a) (b)
Theorem
1.5 The Precise Definition of a Limit
Examples:
Testing the
Definition
 1.6 One-sided Limits

For example: consider the function

1, x > 0
| x| �
f ( x) = =�
x � -1, x < 0
As x approaches 0 from the right, f(x) approaches 1,

and similarly, as x approaches 0 from the left, f(x) approaches -1. We

denote this by
|x| | x|
lim+ =1 lim- = -1
x �0 x x �0 x

Here “+” indicates a limit from the right and “-” indicates a limit from the
left.
One-Sided Limits
 Example

Example: Find xlim 4 - x 2

and lim 4 - x 2
�-2+ x �-2-
 The relation between one-sided limits and two-sided limits

In general, there is no guarantee that a function f will have a two-sided

limit at a given point. In this case, we say that lim f ( x) does not
x �a
exist.

Similarly for one-sided limits.

Here we state the relation without formal proof

Ex: for the functions in the slide, find the one-sided and two sided limits
at x=a if they exists.
Solution:
 Example

Example: for the function graphed below, find out

lim+ f ( x), lim- f ( x), lim f ( x) for k=0, 2, 3, 4?
x �k x �k x �k
 Limits Involving (sinq / q)

A central fact about sinq / q is that in radian measure its limit as q0 is 1.
We can see this from the figure below, and confirm it algebraically using the
Sandwich Theorem.
 Examples

cosh - 1
Find the following limits. ( a ) lim
h �0 h
Example: sin 2 x
(b) lim
x �0 sin 4 x
 tan x sin 4q
Example: (a ) lim (b) lim
x�0 x q �0 q
 1.7 CONTINUITY

Intuitively, the graph of a function can be described as a “continuous curve” if

it has not breaks or holes.

The graph of a function has a break or hole if any of the following conditions
occur:

• The function f is undefined at c

•The limit of f(x) does not exist as x approaches c

•The value of the function and the value of the limit at c are different.
 Example

Find the points at which the function f in below figure is continuous

and the points at which f is not continuous. Why?
 Continuity at a Point

If a function is defined on an open interval containing c, except

possibly at c itself, and f is not continuous at c, then we say that
f is discontinuous at c.
 Definitions

A function f is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x=2

in its domain if lim+ f ( x) = f (c)
x �c

A function f is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at a point x=2 in

its domain if lim- f ( x) = f (c)
x �c
 Continuity Test

For one-sided continuity and continuity at an endpoint, the limits in part 2

And part 3 of the test should be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.
Example: Determine whether the following functions are continuous at x=-3.

�x 2 - 9 �x 2 - 9
x -9
2
� , x �-3 � , x �-3
f ( x) = , g ( x) = �x + 3 , h( x) = �x + 3
x+3 � �
�0, x = -3 �-6, x = -3

Solution:
 Example
Example. The function y=|x| is discontinuous at every integer because
The left –hand and right-hand limits are not equal as xn:

lim- | x |= n - 1
x �n

lim+ | x |= n
x �n
 Discontinuities

Below figure displays several common types of discontinuities:

 Continuous Functions

A function is continuous on an interval if and only if it is continuous at

every point of the interval.

A continuous function is one that is continuous at every point of its

domain.
Example:
(a) the function y=1/x is continuous function.

(b )the function y=x and the constant functions

are continuous everywhere.
 Properties of Continuous Functions

Algebraic combinations of continuous functions are continuous wherever

they are defined.
 Examples

(a) Every polynomial is continuous everywhere.

(b) A rational function is continuous at every point where the

denominator is nonzero, and has discontinuities at the points
where the denominator is zero.

(c) The functions y=sinx and y=cosx are, in fact, continuous

everywhere. It follows that all six trigonometric functions are then
continuous wherever they are defined.
 Composites

All composites of continuous functions are continuous.

 Limits of Continuous Functions

Generally,
The intermediate-value theorem for
Continuous Functions
 Remarks for the Intermediate Value Theorem

• The continuity of f on the interval is essential to the intermediate

value theorem.

• It implies that that graph of a function continuous on an interval will

be connected.

• It tells that if f is continuous, then any interval on which f changes

sign contains a zero of the function. (zero: solution of f(x)=0).
 Approximating roots using the intermediate-value theorem

Theorem.
If f is continuous on [a, b], and if f(a) and f(b) are nonzero and have opposite
signs, then there is at least one solution of the equation f(x)=0 in the interval
(a, b).
 1.8 Limits Involving Infinity
Finite Limits at infinity
If the value of a variable x increases without bound, then we write x � +�

If the value of a variable x increases without bound, then we write x � -�

Ex:

1 1
lim = 0, lim = 0
x �� x x �-� x
 Example

1
lim(5
(a) Find the limit: x �� + )
x

2e
(b) Find the limit: x �-� x3 )
lim (
 Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions

Technique: divide each term in the numerator and denominator by the

highest power of x that occurs in the denominator.
5x - 4
Find xlim
� +� 2 x 2 + 3x
 A Quick Method…

The end behavior of a rational function matches the end behavior of

the quotient of the highest degree term in the numerator divided by
the highest degree term in the denominator.
5x - 4
Find xlim
� +� 2 x 2 + 3 x
 Horizontal Asymptote

y = L is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f if one the Limits hold:

lim f ( x) = L, lim f ( x) = L
x �� x �-�

x3 - 2
Example: Find the horizontal asymptotes of the graph of y =
| x |3 +1
Solution:
 Infinite Limits

Sometime one-side or two-sided limits fail to exist because the values

of the function increase or decrease without bound.

1
For example, consider f ( x) =
x

We describe this behaviors by writing

1 1
lim+ = +� lim = -�
x �0 x x �0 - x
 Infinite Limits (An Informal View)

In writing this, we are not saying that the limit exists. Nor are we saying that
there is a real number , for there is no such number.
 Example

1
Show that lim- = -�
x �0 x
1
lim = �
x �0+ x
 Example

1 1
Find the limits lim and lim-
x �1+ x -1 x �1 x - 1
 One-side limit of p (x) / q (x) when x approaches a

Let p(x)/q(x) be a rational function, where the limit of the denominator

is zero, and the limit of the numerator is not, then one can prove that
the limit of the rational function does not exist and one of the
following situations occurs:

• The limit may be -�

• The limit may be �
• The limit may be -� from one side, and � from the other side.
 Example
x -3 x -3 x -3 2- x
lim , lim , lim
Find the following limits: x�2+ x 2 - 4 x�2- x 2 - 4 x�2 x 2 - 4 , and lim
x �2 ( x - 2) 3

Solution:
 Example

3- x 3- x 3- x
(a) lim+ ,(b) lim- ,(c) lim
Find x �5 ( x - 5)( x + 1) x �5 ( x - 5)( x + 1) x �5 ( x - 5)( x + 1)

Solution:
 Vertical Asymptotes

Example: Find the horizontal and vertical

asymptotes of the graph of y=1/x.
Theorem:
Let f and g be continuous on an open interval containing c. If f(c)0,
g(c)=0, and there exists an open interval containing c such that g(x) 0
for all x c in the interval, then the graph of the function given by
h(x)=f(x)/g(x) has a vertical asymptote at x=c.

Example: given a rational function, find the horizontal asymptotes, and

Vertical asymptotes.

8
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of f ( x) = -
x2 - 4

Solution:.