Structure and Function of the

Female Reproductive System

Photo from IMS.

The functions of the female
reproductive system include:

• Produce egg cells (ova),

• Serve as receptacle for the
penis during copulation, and
• House and nourish the fetus
until parturition.
The female reproductive system is
made up of several organs with
specific functions; each will be
discussed.

Photo from IMS.

 Female Macrostructure
and Function
Ovaries – paired structures that produce
eggs (ova) and the female hormones,
estrogen and progesterone.
Broad ligaments – ligaments that support
the female reproductive tract and arteries,
veins, and nerves of the ovaries in the
abdominal cavity.
Oviducts (Fallopian tubes) – paired
tubes that transport the eggs from
the ovaries to the uterus and serve as
the site where sperm and ova meet
and fertilization occurs.
Infundibulums – two funnel-like
openings of the oviducts that pick up
the eggs at ovulation and direct them
to the body of the oviducts.
Uterus – a major reproductive organ that
consists of the uterine body and two
uterine horns.
The embryo attaches to uterine body or
uterine horn, depending on the species.
The uterus varies in shape between
livestock species from long uterine horns
of the sow to relatively short uterine
horns in the mare.
Functions of the uterus include:
• Passageway for sperm during
copulation,
• Incubation and nourishment of the
embryo during pregnancy, and
• Expulsion of the fetus during
parturition by contractions.
Vagina – reproductive structure that
serves as the receptacle for the penis
during copulation and the birth canal
at parturition; it also serves as a
passageway for expelling liquid
wastes, as the urethra joins the
bladder to the vagina prior to the
opening at the vulva.
Cervix – a thick-walled mass of
connective tissue with a small tube-like
opening that joins the uterus to the
vagina; it serves as a passageway for
semen during copulation.
It also contains glands that secrete a
waxy-like substance that seals off the
uterus during pregnancy and between
heat periods to protect against
infection, disease, or foreign matter.
Vulva – the external portion of
the female reproductive tract that
serves to protect the internal
system from infection, to initially
receive the penis at copulation,
and to act as a passageway for
urine.
Clitoris – a sensory erectile organ
just inside the vulva.
 Female Microstructure
and Function
Oogenesis is the process of producing
ova (eggs) in the follicles of the ovaries.
Oogonia cells develop in the ovaries of
the fetus and mature into oocytes by
birth.
Only a small proportion of oocytes
develop into ova or reach ovulation.
Follicle – a blister-like mass on the
surface of the ovary that contains a
developing ovum and produces and
stores estrogen.
The follicle secretes estrogen as a
signal to the rest of the reproductive
tract to prepare for ovulation (release
of the ovum from a mature follicle).
Corpus hemorrhagicum – a small
hemorrhage or blood-clotted area that
develops at the site of a ruptured
follicle and lasts 2 – 3 days.
Corpus luteum – a yellow body of cells
that develops in place of the corpus
hemorrhagicum and produces
progesterone.
Progesterone – the female sex
hormone that functions to prepare the
female reproductive system for
pregnancy; it is produced by the
corpus luteum and lasts about twelve
days, unless the ovum is fertilized.
Corpus albicans – a white body of
connective tissue that is the result of
the degeneration and re-
absorption of luteal tissue.
Oogenesis is part of the estrous cycle.
The number of ova produced per cycle
varies with each species.
A cow or mare normally produces one
ovum per cycle.
A ewe produces two ova per cycle.
A sow produces eight to fifteen ova per
cycle.
Structure and Function of
the Reproductive System
in Poultry
The reproductive
anatomy of poultry
differ when
compared to that of
other animal
species.
Female Reproductive System in Poultry

The functional parts of the female

poultry reproductive tract includes
one ovary, an oviduct, and the
cloaca.
Female Poultry Reproductive Tract
Mature female poultry have only
one functional ovary; the right
ovary and oviduct degenerate
and cease functioning before the
bird reaches sexual maturity.
The ovary appears as a cluster
of tiny, gray balls that are the
oocytes.
At maturity, the ovary contains up
to 4,000 tiny oocytes from which
ovum may develop over time.
An ovum develops by collecting
lipid particles from the blood to
form the yolk.
The yolk contains fat for energy
and some protein and other
nutrients needed by the developing
embryo, as well as, a small white
dot called the blastodisc that
contains the genetic information
supplied by the female.
When mature, the yolk is released
by the follicle and engulfed by the
infundibulum.
The oviduct is about 25 inches long
and consists of five parts: the
infundibulum, the magnum, the
isthmus, the uterus, and the vagina.
Infundibulum – funnel-like part of
the oviduct that receives the yolk
and is the site of fertilization.
Magnum – second part of the
oviduct that secretes the thick
white or albumen.
Isthmus – third part of the oviduct
that adds the two shell membranes.
Uterus – the fourth part of the
oviduct that secretes the thin white,
the shell, and the shell pigment.
Vagina – the last part of the oviduct
that holds the egg until it is laid.
From the oviduct, the egg passes
to the cloaca and then out of the
body through the vent at the time
of laying.
In addition to producing ova, the
ovary produces the female sex
hormone, estrogen, and the
hormone androgen.
The androgen hormone stimulates
comb growth and works with other
hormones in egg production.
In poultry, the functions of estrogen
include:
• stimulating the growth of the oviduct,
• increasing the size of the cloaca
during egg laying,
• modifying feather shape and
pigmentation of the female, and
• increasing the level of fat, phosphorus,
and calcium in the blood.
The Reproductive Process
in Mammals
The estrous cycle is measured as
the time between two consecutive
estrous periods.
The duration of the estrous cycle
varies among species of livestock
(cow, sow, and mare is 19-21 days;
ewe is 15-17 days).
The estrous cycle begins with the
ovulation of a follicle and ends with
the ovulation of the next follicle.
When it erupts, the follicle releases
the egg to the oviduct and develops
a corpus hemorrhagicum.
The corpus hemorrhagicum last 2-3
days before it is replaced by the
corpus luteum.
The corpus luteum secretes the
hormone progesterone, which
helps prepare and maintain the
reproductive tract for pregnancy.
If fertilization of the egg occurs,
the corpus luteum remains for the
duration of the pregnancy.
If fertilization does not occur, the
corpus luteum regresses.
During the regression of the corpus
luteum, a new developing follicle on
the ovary begins to release estrogen.
In addition to preparing the
reproductive tract for ovulation,
estrogen induces estrus (heat) in
the female.
Estrus – the period of time when a
female animal is receptive to the
male for mating purposes.
 Duration and Signs of Estrus
Species Duration Signs of Estrus

Cow 12-24 hours Most reliable sign of estrus is

standing to be mounted.
Mare 4-9 days Urinate frequently, vulva
winking, nervousness.
Sow 24-72 hours Standing still if pressure is
applied to loin area.
Ewe 24-36 hours Standing to be mounted by ram.
After ovulation, the egg (ovum) is
received by the infundibulum and
funneled to the oviduct.
If a female has been bred during
estrus (heat period) and a viable
sperm reaches the fallopian tube to
fertilize the egg, pregnancy occurs.
As mentioned, the corpus luteum
remains throughout pregnancy to
produce progesterone.
Progesterone prevents an estrus
period during pregnancy, helps to
implant and nourish the embryo,
and helps to develop the mammary
system of the female.
Fertilization – the union of the
haploid sperm and the haploid
ovum to form a diploid individual;
the actual beginning of pregnancy.

Sperm and Egg Visual by www.PDImages.com

Insemination can be natural or
artificial.
When bred naturally, the male
deposits the semen into the
vagina of the female.
The sperm make their way
through the cervix, into the
uterine body, both uterine horns,
and finally into the oviducts.
If the sperm were deposited at the
proper time in relation to ovulation,
the sperm and egg should unite and
fertilization occur.
The fertilized ovum, or zygote,
begins a process of cellular division
and becomes an embryo.
At first, the embryo floats freely in
the uterus obtaining its nourishment
from fluids secreted by the uterine
wall.
The embryo will then attach to
the wall of the uterus (20 days in
cattle; varies with species) and
begin taking a recognizable form,
at which time it becomes a fetus.
The embryo is encompassed by a
fluid filled membrane called the
amnion, which protects the embryo
from mechanical disturbances.
The amnion is surrounded by the
chorion, which functions as a
protective coat and point of
nutrient exchange.
Fetal Membranes
The chorion attaches to the uterus.
In ruminants (cow and ewe), the
chorion develops cotyledons
(raised button-like nodules) that
attach at certain places on the
uterus called caruncles.
In the mare and sow the placental
attachment is made over most of
the surface area of the chorion.
The fetus receives nourishment
from its mother through these
attachment sites.
The placenta is the term given to
the membranes (chorion and
uterine mucosa) that surround
the embryo and attach to the
uterus.
In some species of mammals, such
as swine, several ova are produced
and fertilized during a single cycle
resulting in multiple births.

Photo by Keith Weller courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service..

Fraternal twins are offspring that
are produced during a single
pregnancy from two separate
ovum fertilized by two separate
sperm.
Maternal (identical) twins – two
offspring that result from a single
ovum fertilized by a single sperm.
Photo by Jack Dykinga courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.
A normal pregnancy
ends with the birth
of the offspring.
At parturition
(the process of
giving birth),
the fetus is expelled Photo by Scott Bauer courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.

from the uterus, passing through

the cervix and vagina, out of the
reproductive tract.
The membranes that had formed
around the fetus are also expelled
and, collectively, are called
afterbirth.
After parturition, the corpus luteum
on the ovary begins to degenerate,
a developing follicle on the ovary
begins to release estrogen, estrus
occurs, and the estrous cycle
begins again.
The Reproductive Process
in Poultry
In poultry, the sperm are
introduced into the oviduct from
the cloaca and move up the oviduct
to the infundibulum, where
fertilization takes place.
Eggs that are already forming when
mating takes place are not fertilized.
This means that the first few eggs
laid after mating may not be fertile.
Sperm cells can remain viable in the
oviduct for two or three weeks,
though viability decreases as time
passes.
The yolk is released from the hen’s
ovary and falls into the infundibulum,
where the female germ cell on the
outer edge of the yolk is fertilized by
the sperm.
The fertilized yolk, or embryo,
moves through the reproductive
tract, acquiring the normal egg
components (albumen, shell
membrane, thin white, and shell).
Fertilization and Formation of an Egg in Poultry
After the egg is laid, the embryo
continues to develop with the proper
temperature and humidity.
The contents of the egg provide
nourishment for the embryo during
incubation and for
three to four days
after the chick has
hatched.
Photo by Joe Valbuena courtesy of USDA Photography Center.
 Reproductive Failures
in Livestock
Sterility, or the inability to
reproduce, may be caused by a
number of reasons.
Permanent or temporary sterility
can be the result of specific physical
defects, particular diseases,
environmental factors, or nutritional
aspects.
Factors that affect reproductive
ability include the following:
• Anatomical factors,
• Diseases,
• Environmental factors, and
• Other factors, such as nutrition,
toxic plants, and genetic
factors.
 Anatomical Factors
Cryptorchidism – a hereditary
condition where both of the testes
fail to descend into the scrotum
resulting in complete sterility.
Unilateral cryptorchidism – a
hereditary condition where one of
the testes fails to descend into the
scrotum resulting in reduced fertility.
Scrotal hernia – a condition where
part of the intestine passes through
the inguinal canal into the scrotum;
though it may not cause sterility, a
scrotal hernia may cause an animal
not to breed and it can be
dangerous.
Malformed penis – a condition
resulting from injury or birth
defect that causes the penis to
be malformed to the extent that
copulation cannot be performed.
Freemartin – a condition with twin
calves of the opposite sex, where
the female calf’s reproductive tract
does not develop completely causing
sterility in 90% of the cases.
Infantile or absence of ovaries – a
condition where the ovaries fail to
develop, do not function, or are
absent because of a hormone
imbalance.
Endocrine disturbances – hormonal
or glandular reproductive
disturbances in females resulting
from one or more cysts on the
ovaries.
 Diseases

Brucellosis or “Bang’s disease” – a

bacterial disease that causes the
destruction of the cotyledons of the
uterus and may result in abortion
of the fetus in latter months of
gestation.
Preventable by vaccination,
brucellosis affects cattle, swine,
sheep, goats, horses, dogs, and
some wildlife (elk, bison).
Infected animals must be
slaughtered.
Vibriosis (Camylobacteriosis) – a
veneral disease found in cattle that
causes infertility, early embryonic
death, and abortion.
Vaccinations are effective at
preventing vibriosis.
A similar type of organism can
infect sheep.
Trichomoniasis – a veneral disease
caused by a protozoa that infects
cattle and causes early embryonic
death and abortion.
Vaccination is not always an effective
means of prevention.
Leptospirosis – a bacterial disease
that causes a loss of body weight,
hemolytic anemia, and abortion.
Leptospirosis affects cattle, swine,
sheep, goats, dogs, and horses and
can effectively be prevented by
vaccination.
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis – a
respiratory viral disease that causes
pneumonia, fever, infertility, impaired
fetal circulation, and eventually
abortion.
IBR can effectively be prevented with
vaccinations.
Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) – a
viral disease that causes ulcerations
throughout the digestive tract,
fever, and diarrhea.
Abortion is caused by infection of
cotyledons.
Vaccinations are an effective means
of prevention of BVD.
 Environmental Factors

Mechanical injury – physical

damaged to reproductive organs
caused by injuries due conditions
such as improper handling, unsafe
facilities, fighting among animals, or
complications during parturition or
copulation.
Stress – severe climatic conditions
(primarily extreme heat), high
population density, rough handling,
and other stressful environmental
factors can cause reproductive
distress.
Other Factors Affecting Reproduction
Nutritional deficiencies - reproductive
inability can be caused by insufficient
levels of feed intake and quality of
nutrients needed to meet the high
demands put on the body’s
metabolism due to fertility, pregnancy,
lactation, and other events involved
in reproduction.
Lack of condition or obese condition
usually reduces reproductive efficiency.
With a lack of condition caused by low
nutrition, the body does not have the
energy necessary for reproductive
activities.
During obesity, fatty deposits collect in
and around the reproductive organs,
impairing function and productivity.
The following vitamins and minerals
are known to affect reproduction, if
they are not balanced in the
animal’s diet.
• Vitamin A – shortened periods of
gestation, higher incidence of
retained placentas, stillbirths,
abortions, mastitis, calves born
blind and uncoordinated;
• Vitamin E – poor conception rates,
higher incidence of stillbirths
and newborn mortality;
• Phosphorus – poor conception
rates, delayed puberty, lower
weaning rates, erratic heat;
• Calcium – increased calving
difficulty, uterine prolapse,
retained placenta;
• Cobalt – poor conception rates,
general reproductive failure;
• Iodine – retained placentas,
delayed puberty, arrested fetal
development, irregular or
suppressed heat, abortion,
stillbirths, and calves that are
blind, hairless, and have
enlarged thyroid glands;
• Copper – delayed puberty,
abortion, retained placentas;
• Iron – general reproductive failure,
anemic young; and
• Manganese – irregular or
suppressed heat.
Ingestion of toxic plants – poisonous
plants can also cause reproductive
stress or abortion.
The following plants can cause
abortion and birth defects in cattle:
Snakeweed

• Locoweed,
• Snakeweed, and
• Ponderosa pine.
Photo by Gary Stolz courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
The following plants can cause
abortion in sheep and goats:
Lupines

• Lupines,
• Sweet clover,
• Onion grass.

Photo by Mike Boylan courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Genetic factors – some bloodlines
are known to have a high genetic
factor or weakness for sterility or
low productivity.
Inbreeding also may result in
lowered fertility.
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Reproduction or redistribution of all, or
part, of this presentation without
written permission is prohibited.

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Texas A&M University
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2007