THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
During the first two weeks of life, cell division changes
the Fertilized egg or zygote into a group of cells
known as blastula, which then becomes a two-layered
hollow cup called gastrula. The cell colony has moved
through the mother's fallopian tubes into the uterus
(womb), where it becomes attached to the thick wall
lining of the uterus
From about the third to the ninth week, the cell colony is called
an embryo. During this period, the gastrula forms into three cell layers
which eventually develop into the various systems of the body.
ectoderm (outer layer) will form the sense organs, skin, and nervous
system. The mesoderm (middle layer) will form the blood, bone, and
muscles. The endoderm (inner layer) will form the digestive system.
These three layers continue developing until the embryo looks rough
like a human being and at about 9 weeks after conception until its
birth, it is called a fetus.
In studying the development of systems in the fetus, it is of
fundamental necessity that we focus first our attention on the basic
units of the nervous system. By doing so, we will be able to find
out how they influence and determine our behavior. In a very real
sense, the nervous system is the basis for behavior in that by means
of it, a person can both detect and respond to stimuli. Let us now
concentrate on the structure and functions of the nervous system.
Neurons (Nerve Cells)
 
The neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic building block of the nervous
system. Neurons may take many shapes, but all are similar in their
structure and function. They have different shapes because they
have to fit in different places.
The Neuron is composed of a cell body, which contains the nucleus
of the cell, and two types of fibers that branch off from the cell body
- the axons and the dendrites. The axons send impulses from the
cell body to other neurons or to the muscles. The dendrites receive
nerve impulses from other neurons or directly from some physical
source and send them to the cell body. Dendrites are usually short;
axons can be quite long. In areas where there are a great many neurons
-as in the brain or in bundles of neural connection-both dendrites
and axons are relatively short and bushy. In the outer areas of the
body, axons tend to become longer. An axon running from the cortex
to the base of the spinal cord may be as long as three feet.
Axons in the brain and spinal cord are often covered by a white
fatty layer of cells called myelin sheath, which acts as an insulator
and aids the conduction of impulses. Small gatherings in clusters
of cell bodies are called ganglia. Many axons from neurons in the
same location of the body tend to travel together as nerve fibers and
form nerve tracts. Such tracts always appear as bundles of axons
within the brain and spinal cord. Similar bundles of axons called nerve
trunks connect it to neurons running from within the brain and spinal
cord to the outer body areas.
Types of Neurons
Motor neurons relay messages from the brain to the muscles or glands. In these
neurons, the cell body is located in the spinal cord and the axon is long enough to reach
a neighboring neuron or even as far as the muscle or gland to which it sends impulses A
motor neuron is directly responsible for each movement and response we make.
 
Sensory or afferent incoming) neurons receive stimuli and car them to the brain
(sensation for interpretation (perception). The cell body of the sensory neuron is located
in the nerve root, which outside the spinal cord. It receives external stimuli through its
dendrites fibers and relays the impulses through the cell body into the spinal
cord. Once inside the spinal cord, impulses either travel to the brain or pass directly to
the motor neurons, which transmit the impulse to the muscles and glands (effectors).
interneurons or association neurons are located in the brain and
spinal cord. They connect the impulse from the axon fibers of the
sensory neuron to the dendrite fibers of the motor neuron. They also
provide nerve impulses with alternate circuits or pathways. If one
circuit is busy or damaged, another path is thus made available.
 
The interneurons serve only as conductors. They don't accept sensory
stimuli as the sensory neurons do nor do they stimulate the glands
or muscle cells as motor neurons do
Branches or collaterals from axon fibers of sensory neurons,
motor neurons, and interneurons can also transmit nerve impulse
- they are able to connect with many other dendrite fibers. Similarly, the
dendrite fibers of one neuron may be receiving impulses from many other
neurons.
 The Nerve Impulse
 The nerve impulse results from changes in the thin membrane
that covers the nerve cell. A stimulus will cause the membrane to
become permeable at any given point. When this happens, there is
a loss of polarization of the adjacent membrane, which in turn, causes
the membrane at the next point to become permeable. The whole
process impulse seems to roll along the surface of the nerve fiber:
The Strength Of the nerve impulse does not depend on the strength
of the stimulus that started the impulse this is the all-or-none-
law of the nervous system. Nerve fibers will respond completely
or not at all depending upon whether or not the stimulus has reached
a certain minimum strength, referred to as the threshold Of course,
a stronger stimulus will break through the stimulation threshold of
more fibers, thus creating a more intense experience. For example,
An outline of a nerve cell. Dendrites receive inputs. The axon transmits
activity away from the cell body to the axon terminals. The cell body
contains a nucleus that directs the metabolic machinery of the cells
The differences in shapes of nerve cells are mostly due to differences
in the shape of their dendrites and the size of their cell bodies.
 other conditions being equal, a scream is heard more intensely than
whisper. A weak stimulus will excite a few fibers and therefore
may not result in a sensory experience at all.
the number of times a nerve fiber can respond each second
has a certain limit. After a nerve fiber has responded to a stimulation,
there is a period of time that it is completely unresponsive to new
inhalation - this is known as the absolute refractory period. During a
relative refractory period that follows, only very strong stimuli, well
above the normal threshold, can excite the nerve fiber. The frequency
of nerve fiber response is thus increased for strong stimuli.
The Synapse
Nerve impulses pass along from the axon of one neuron to the
dendrite of another, as if they are connected, but these nerve endings
do not actually touch. Each of the gaps is called a synapse (See Figure
12), found between the axon tip of one neuron and the dendrite or
the cell body of another neuron. When an impulse arrives at the
end of an axon, tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles release a transmitting
substance that crosses the synaptic gap and causes the membrane of
the receiving dendrite to react and produce an impulse in
the
dendrite fiber.
Basic components of the synapse. A branch of the axon ends in a slight
bulge known as the presynaptic terminal. The presynaptic terminal is
separated from the next nerve cell (the postsynaptic cell) by a narrow
gap called the synaptic cleft. Bodies within the presynaptic terminal
(circles) contain a chemical that can influence the postsynaptic cell
at certain points (called receptor sites), thus allowing nerve cells to
communicate.
  
Impulses pass only from the axon to the dendrite of the cell
body, never in the opposite direction A little more time needed
for an impulse to cross a synapse than to pass along a nerve fiber
The axon branches great deal when it approaches and enter
the muscle and ends in a muscle fiber Each motor neuron controls
a squad of muscle fibers, varying in size from a tew muscle cells
in small muscles such as those of the eyes or the fingers, to as many
as 200 in large muscles such as those of the arms and legs. The axon
branches contact the muscle cells at the motor end plate.
A synapse, both as photographed under high magnification and as dia
framed. The large structures in the presynaptic terminal are mitochondria,
which are involved in cellular metabolism.Alargenumber of synaptic vesicles
can be seen. These vesicles can merge with the presynaptic membrane
discharging their load of transmitter into the synaptic cleft. The transmitter
attaches to receptor sites on the post-synaptic cell and changes the resting
potential of the postsynaptic cell. (From Baddely, 2000)
 
 

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The neurons or nerve cells, as has been
presented, are the basic building blocks of
the nervous system. Two main divisions
compose the nervous system: the central
nervous system composed of the brain and
the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous
system consisting of nerve fibers or bundles
of axons found outside the brain and
spinal cord.
Figure 14
The central nervous system
consists of the brain and the spinal
cord. The spinal cord is connected
to the brain and has input and out
put connections with the rest of the
body. The peripheral nervous system
consists of bundles of axons (an
axon is a part of a nerve cell) referred
to as nerves and groups of nerve cells
that are situated outside the brain
and spinal cord. The nerves of the
peripheral nervous system carry
sensory information to the brain and
spinal cord, and they transmit control
information from the brain and
spinal cord to the muscles and organs
of the body. The parts of the
peripheral nervous system that are
involved in the control of such automatic
functions as heartbeat and
digestion are called the autonomic
nervous system. Those parts con
cerned with voluntary muscle movements
and with most sensory input
are called the somatic nervous system.
(Adapted from Gnagey and
Waiten. 1999)
,

The place of impulse transference is primarily in the central

nervous system. Across the spinal cord and upward to the brain
bundles of nerve fibers (tracts) and bundles of cell bodies
(nuclei)make up the central nervous system.
The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous
system to the rest of the body parts.
The Spinal Cord

 As mentioned, the nerve fibers running from various parts of

the body to and from the brain are gathered together in the
spinal

cord where they are protected by the bony spinal vertebrae.

The spinal

cord has two major functions: 2. It governs certain types of reflex movements. It processes
1.It serves as a pathway through which nerve impulses sensory impulses and sends impulses to the effectors without
from
the assistance of the brain. This is a great aid to our well-being,
sensory organs (effectors) pass to the brain and
impulses to as reflexes need to be fast. Instantaneous reflexes such as

the brain (effectors) return to the muscles and glands; withdrawing the hand from something hot or blinking the eye
and are controlled by the spinal cord.
The Brain
The functions of the brain are to identify, organize, interpret,
and respond to the experience of sensory stimulation. It consists
of three cavities or cores: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the
forebrain.
The hindbrain includes the medulla, which controls respiration,
digestion, and circulation; the cerebellum, which governs body balance,
posture, and muscular coordination; and pons which contain
nerve fibers from both sides of the cerebellum as well as the tracts
of sensory and motor nerve fibers that connect the upper brain to
the spinal cord.
The midbrain has tracts between the cerebrum and the spinal
cord and functions as part of the overall impulse conduction system.
It also controls some auditory and visual responses such as regulation of
the size of the pupil of the eye.
The forebrain is the largest of the three divisions of the brain
and occupies the entire upper portion of the skull. It is composed
of the most complex structures in the brain that control complicated
patterns of behavior and other higher level activities that differentiate
human beings from other forms of animals. The three
major
structures of the forebrain are the cerebrum, the
thalamus, and the
hypothalamus. The cerebrum, the main area of the
forebrain, governs
The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the cerebrum, directs the
activities
of the entire nervous system. The thalamus interprets and sorts the
sensory and motor impulses that travel to and from the cerebrum.
It appears to relay sensory impulses to specific areas in the cerebral
cortex. The hypothalamus is a collection of nerve cells that controls
body temperature, metabolism, hunger, and thirst. It also plays a
key role in emotional behavior. Stimulation of the correct hypo
thalamic area in a cat will produce rage in a calm animal; lesions
  
 in part of the hypothalamus can cause animals to overeat so that
they could barely move. The hypothalamus is also closely connected
to a diffuse system of nerve structures called the limbic system, which
The reticular activating system is a group of neurons that occupy
a portion of the hindbrain and midbrain and also extends into the
lower part of the thalamus in the forebrain. It serves as an arousal
system, constantly alerting the cortex to data from the sensory organs.
When this area of the brain is destroyed accidentally or surgically,
the individual falls into a coma.
The cerebrum consists of two halves or hemispheres, the left
and the right. The right hemisphere of the cerebrum controls the
sensory and motor activities in the left side of the body and the left
hemisphere controls such activities in the right side. The corpus
callosum connects the two brain hemispheres. This is a broad bundle
of
nerve fibers that coordinates the activities of the two hemispheres.
The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum or rind of the
brain. It is composed of nerve cells and small blood vessels, its major
regions or lobes are outlined by the central and lateral fissures called
the fissure of Rolando and fissure of Sylvius, respectively, the deepest
and most pronounced grooves in each hemisphere. Behind the
cerebral hemispheres is a formation that seemed to be another
smaller brain, so it was named the cerebellum, from the Latin for little
brain. This structure is primarily responsible for muscle tone, body
balance, and coordination of voluntary movements (as of fingers
and thumb).
Different surface areas of the cortex are responsible for specific
experiences or sensations. That is, the cortex functions are localized
The area of the cortex responsible for primary motor functions is located
in the frontal lobe, just in front of the central fissure. Two
cortical areas influence motor activity: one is located on the temporal
side of the longitudinal or lateral fissure, and the other appears a
short distance in front of the primary area along the top of the central
fissure. These are called the secondary motor areas. The somatosensory
area, the cortical centers for the body senses, are located from the
top to the sides of the parietal lobe along the central fissure. the
important centers of vision are located in occipital lobe. The principal
area for translating auditory stimulation lies along the upper portion
of the temporal lobe:
The association areas, which are the large frontal areas, are responsible
for the organizing processing, and storing of information
entering and leaving the brain. They produce much of the behavior
that we call language, speech, learning, remembering, and thinking.
The areas are highly integrated although damage to one specific
portion does not necessarily cause a total sensory or motor deficiency
Malfunction depends more on the extent of the damage to the
association cortex than on the specific place of damage.
Higher intellectual processes such as abstract reasoning and
problem-solving seem to occur in the frontal association areas.
 
The Peripheral Nervous System
 This nervous system includes the somatic nervous system and the automatic nervous system.
The motor nerve fibers that connect the spinal cord to the striated muscle and sensory nerve
fibers compose the somatic nervous system. The motor system serving the smooth muscles is
the automatic nervous system. The two main divisions that compose it are the sympathetic and
the parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic system consists of a group of nerve fibers
running longitudinally along both sides of the spinal cord and adjacent to the thorax and lumbar
regions. The body uses the sympathetic division in situations where one is in a state of fear;
heightened emotionality violence, and extreme cold. It is a highly integrated system that
functions as a unit in responding to such emergencies, which is controlled by nerve cells in the
hypothalamus and the brain stem. The task of the parasympathetic division is the day-to-day
control of the individual functions of bodily organs. After an emergency has passed, the
parasympathetic division returns the body to its normal level of functioning. It is composed of
cranial nerves in the brain stem and sacral nerves below the lower back. These conduct impulses
to the viscera and are similar structure to nerves that conduct impulses to the skeletal muscles.
The Reflex
 
Reflex responses which are chains consisting of a sensory organ
and three nerve cells are produced automatically by the body and they serve to protect the
organism and preserve its life. Examples of these are knee jerk, pupil constriction, withdrawal of
the body of its parts from a very hot or cold object, scratching, breathing, and stretching. All reflex
behavior involves a similar chain
events. Stimulus activates a receptor cell. The receptor cell sense a nerve impulse through a
sensory neuron to a place of control. A motor neuron receives a response impulse from the place
of control
and carries it to an effector (muscle or gland that responds to the stimulus). In this respect, the
reflex behavior is similar to more complex behavior patterns. However, the reflex differs in two
ways: First,
the reflex circuit operates fairly automatically, second, in most cases the center for processing the
impulses of reflex stimulation is in the spinal cord, not in the brain. The circuit through which nerve
impulses travel is called the reflex arc. When the brain is not involved in a reflex response, the
process is called a spinal reflex and the circuit is called sensorimotor arc. Brain-controlled reflex
permit more complex and variable combinations of responses than those controlled by the spinal
cord.
Central Nervous System
Brain and Spinal Cord - Receives impulses from
the sensory nerves, provides interneuron
connections, transmits impulses to motor
nerves.
 Peripheral Nervous System
 Somatic (sensorimotor nerves) - Transmits
impulses from receptors to brain and spinal
cord, transmits impulses to striated muscles
from brain and spinal cord.
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions -
Transmits impulses from brain to smooth muscles.
It can be seen from the above that each system
serves the other One system cannot function
without the other; hence, they are sad to be
interacting systems. Thus, in psychology,
discussions of behavior are not limited to the
activity of the brain, the spinal cord, the sense
organs, or the muscles and glands. Behavior is
regarded as a function of the whole organism
THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Most of the bodily reactions that result from the activity of the autonomic nervous system are produced by the
action of the system on the endocrine glands. 
Endocrine glands are scattered masses of tissue found in varous parts of the body at the base of the brain, in the
neck, behind the stomach, above the kidneys, and within and below the pelvis(see Figure 21) These endocrine
glands secrete special chemical messengers known as hormones that are directly released into the bloodstream
because they have no ducts or structured passage ways to the organs that they serve. These chemicals are as
essential as the nervous system to the integration of the organism's activities and to the maintenance of
homeostasis. Homoeostasis is attained when the rate of internal activities (processes of metabolism such as
oxidation of food, growth of living tissue, conservation of energy, etc.) is balanced, neither too fast, nor too slow.
Such a balance is essential for the individual's survival. Body temperature must not
get too high or too low. Blood pressure must not rise or fall beyond certain limits. The blood must not get acidic
or alkaline, it must not contain too much carbon dioxide, not become too concentrated, and have a certain
amount of sugar. Homeostasis is the tendency of the body to maintain a balance among internal physiological
conditions It is the body's self regulating tendency. And the endocrine glands determine homeostasis to a great
extent Moreover, the functioning of the nervous system depends on secretions called hormones. For example,
some neurons use a hormone,
Other Hormones modify the excitability of neurons. The endocrine glands play an important role in
growth, sexual and maternal behavior, and individual's characteristic level of energy and mood, and
his reaction to stress. Some Endocrine glands are controlled by the nervous system whereas others
respond to the internal state of the body.
The Pituitary Gland
 This major endocrine gland is partly an outgrowth of the brain
and is joined to it. Tas situated just below the hypothalamus, The
pituitary gland has been called the "master gland" because it pro
duces the largest number of different hormones. It also controls and
activates the secretion of several other endocrine glands.
 Two independently functioning parts of the pituitary gland are
the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary. Hormones released
by the former, known as oxytocin, influence the contraction of the
uterus during childbirth and the reflexive ejection of milk from the
mammary glands. In addition, vasopressin regulates the amount of
water in the body cells and thus indirectly controls blood pressure.
The functions of the anterior pituitary hormones include
control of the timing and amount of body growth. Too little
of this hormone can lead to a condition called dwarfism
while over secretion can produce giantism. Other
hormones of the anterior pituitary trigger the action of
other endocrine glands-the thyroid, the gonads, and one
part of the adrenal gland, Courtship, mating and
reproductile behavior in many animals involve a complex
interaction between the activity of the nervous system and
the influence of the anterior pituitary on the sex glands.
The Adrenal Glands
 These are located just above the kidneys, They are extremely important in
neural functioning and in the ability of the body to cope with stress. The inner
core of the adrenal gland secretes epinephrine, also called adrenaline, and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The hormones which prepare the organism
for an emergency are closely involved with the action of the sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system. The release norepinephrine, for
example, causes nervousness, perspiration, constrictions of the blood vessels
in the stomach and intestines, and makes the heart beat faster.
Norepinephrine stimulates the release of hormones called steroids, which
cause the liver to release stored Ungar so the body has energy for quick
action. Cortisone, a synthetic form of adrenal steroid, is used in the treatment
of allergic reactions, arthritis, and shock.
The Thyroid Gland
 The thyroid gland is located in the neck in front of the wind pipe
and weighs less than an ounce. One important element in the
hormone produced by this gland is iodine. Underactivity of the
thyroid gland results in hypothyroidism, which is characterized by
laziness and dullness on the part of the organism. When this occurs
in infancy, the condition is known ascretinism. Without treatment, a
child with this disorder becomes a stocky dwarf with coarse skin and
oversized tongue, and chalky, peg-shaped teeth. We can now
partially correct hypothyroidism by daily administration of thyroid
extract thereby overcoming, to a considerable extent, the harmful
effects of the deficiency.
Hypothyroidism is often accompanied by a goiter in the neck.
Goiter is a swelling of the thyroid gland brought about by the
glands overworking; hence, the inability to secrete enough
hormones. Alack of iodine in the diet is a contributing factor
in many goiter cases. The person with too much thyroid
secretion (hyperthyroidism)is just the opposite he is overly
active in his behavior and is pronto loss of weight and
insomnia,
The Parathyroid Glands
 These are two pairs of small pea-shaped glands close to the sthyroid glands. Their hormone
called parathormone, regulates the utilization of calcium and phosphorous in the body. Under
Secretion of this hormone results in a condition known as tetany, which is characterized by
intermittent, involuntary muscle twitching and spasms. If too much parathormone is present, the
nervous system becomes desensitized and poor physical coordination results
 The Gonads
 The gonads are the sex or puberty glands which produce the sperm and egg cells for
reproduction. They secrete hormones called androgens for the male and estrogens for the
female which have an important effect on the personality development of the individual. They
are responsible for the development of the secondary sex characteristics of the biologically
mature man and woman. The behavior of a male horse that had its gonads removed is quite
differentiate from that of a stallion. If the gonads are removed from female animals, male
characteristics often develop. For example, if the ovaries are removed from ducks, they will soon
develop the characteristic male plumage.
 
In human, scientists have discovered that there is a large increase in the secretion of the
hormone testosterone in boys at about 13 years of age. This increase occurs at about the
same time as the urge to date girls and the first feelings of infatuation. The dating urge
and the feelings of infatuation are delayed or do not occur at all in boys who lack the
normal amount of testosterone. 
The Pancreas 
The pancreas, located near the stomach, secretes two hormones which control the level
of blood sugar or glucose in the blood stream. Glucagon releases glucose in the
bloodstream from the glycogen stored in the liver. Insulin enables glucose to move out of
the blood into the cells of muscles and other tissues. If too much or too little of either
hormone is present, the person may suffer from lipaglyncemtia (low blood sugar) or
diabetes mellitus (high blood sugar), also called hyperglycemia.
 
The hypoglycemic person has insufficient energy available on the body's needs. The
shortage of blood sugar may seriously interfere with his brain function On the other
hand, the diabetic's bloodstream is loaded with energy but the cells cannot get it. He
may seem undernourished and starved, Eventually, if untreated, his ailment leads to
complications. Summary of the Functions of the Endocrine Glands
The ductless or endocrine glands are of major significance to both physiology and
psychology. Their chemical secretions, the hormones, are major agents (along with the
nervous system) in the internal regulation of bodily functions as well as in the
embryological development and subsequent growth of the organism. Throughout
development, the hormones exercise vital regulatory functions. 
With regard to behavioral processes, the most important endocrine glands are the
gonads, the adrenal, the thyroid, the pancreas, and the pituitary. The functions of
these and other endocrine glands are shown in Table 2 (from Durand and Barlow,
2000).