Mean, Median, Mode (Measures ofCentral Tendency)

A measure of central tendency is an average value in a set

of scores. There are three types of measures of central
tendency, that is mean, median and mode.

Mean is the most commonly used measure of central

tendency.

What is mean?
For ungrouped data, adding all of the scores in a set and
dividing this sum by the number of scores is called mean.
For example, the mean for scores 70, 85 and 100 in a test
is:
70+85+100 = 85
3
Median is the middle score when the total number of scores
is odd or, the average of the two middle scores if the total
number of scores is even in an ascending order of
distribution.

Example 1: 35, 40, 56, 70, 94 (ascending order)

Median = 56

Example 2: 45, 55, 62, 76, 80, 96 (ascending order)

Median = (62+76)/2 = 138/2 = 69

Data can also be arranged in descending order

Mode is the score that has the highest frequency in a
distribution. A distribution may have one or more modes.
However, it may not have a mode at all.

Example 1: 76, 55, 34, 80, 60, 95, 70

No mode

Example 2: 86, 70, 59, 70, 75, 68, 70

Mode = 70 (unimodal)

Example 3: 76, 62, 54, 68, 62, 54, 88, 71

Mode= 54, 62 (bimodal)
 Basic Statistics for Research
Test Yourself: Mean, Mode and Median

The following scores were obtained by respondents from

two groups of respondents for an English test:

Control group: 34, 55, 50, 50, 53, 60, 61.

Treatment group: 30, 23, 49, 50, 89, 85.

Calculate the mean, mode and median for each group.

Which group performed better? Why? Which measure of
central tendency did you use?

Pass mark = 50
Full marks = 100
Control group
Mean = (Total score)/Total no. of students = 363/7 =51.86
Median = 53
Mode = 50 (most frequent)

Treatment group
Mean = 326/6 = 54.33
Median = (49 + 50)/2 = 49.5
Mode = no mode

Even though the mean for the treatment group is higher,

the performance of the control group is still considered
better; this is because of of extreme scores in the treatment
group; as such preferable to use the median as a gauge;
also, note the higher % of passes in the control group
(85.7%) compared to the treatment group (50%)
 Basic Statistics for Research
Measures of Variability

A measure of variability is an index of how scores are

scattered around the centre of the distribution.

It is also referred to as the spread, width or dispersion.

Two common measures of variability are the:

(a) range and

(b) standard deviation
 Basic Statistics for Research
Range
Range is the difference between the highest and lowest
scores in a distribution

For example, look at the following set of scores

2, 6, 7, 7, 10, 12, 13, 100.

The range R = Highest score – Lowest score

= 100 – 2 = 98

Range is a weak gauge of spread because it is

dependent only on two scores. A change in either the
highest or lowest score will cause a huge fluctuation in
the spread
 Standard Deviation
Another way to know the variability or spread of the scores
is to find the standard deviation

Standard Deviation,  = (X  X ) 2

Interpretation of Standard Deviation Values

The smaller the value of standard deviation, the smaller the
spread of the distribution and this implies the data are closer
to each other (homogeneous); the bigger the s.d., the more
heterogeneous the data is.
Consider the following example for the calculation of
standard deviation for non-grouped data:
The score of 5 respondents in a survey are 1, 2 , 3, 4
and 5.
Mean, X = 15/5 = 3

Standard Deviation,  =  ( X  X ) 2
= √(10/5) = 1.414
N

Score ( X - X) ( X - X )2
(X)
5 2 4
4 1 1
3 0 0
2 -1 1
1 -2 4
N=5  (X - X )2 = 10
Normal Distribution Curve
A Normal Distribution Curve is a bell-shaped curve when the scores are
normally distributed. The area under the curve represents all (100%) of
the scores and 50% of the scores are above the mean and 50% of the
scores are below the mean. It must also be noted that the value for the
mean, the median, and the mode are the same. Most scores are near
the mean and the further from the mean a score is the fewer the
number of persons who attain that score.

Figure 8: A Normal Distribution Curve

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
-4 -2 0 2 4
 Standard Scores (z-score and T-score)

A standard score expresses the position of an individual

score in terms of how many standard deviations the score
is above or below the mean of the distribution. It is usually
represented by z-score or T-score.

z-score is computed by using the following formula:

(X  X )
z=


T-score is computed by using the following formula:

T = 50 + 10z
Example:
The scores for 5 respondents in an experiment are 5, 8, 10,
4 and 3. Find the z-score and T-score for the respondent
with 10 marks.

X = (5 + 8 + 10 + 4 + 3)/5 = 6 Std. dev. = 2.61

z-score = (10-6)/2.61 = 1.54

T-score = 50 + 10z = 50 + 10(1.54) = 65.4
Interpretation z-score

In an experiment, suppose that Amirul has a score of 45 in

Mathematics; the mean score for the norm group is 60 and
the standard deviation is 15. Amirul’s standard score would
be:

z = = - 0.1

This means that Amirul is one standard deviation away from

the mean. The negative sign shows that he is one standard
deviation below the mean.

The results also show that Amirul’s performance is better

than 15.86% of the other respondents. Or that his
performance is worse compared to 84.14% of the other
respondents
Random Sampling techniques
Simple random sampling is the basic sampling technique where we
select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a
population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each
member of the population has an equal chance of being included in
the sample.

Systematic sampling is a type of probability samplingmethod in

which sample members from a larger population are selected according to
a random starting point and a fixed periodic interval. This interval, called
the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing the population size by the
desired sample size.

With cluster sampling, the researcher divides the population into

separate groups, called clusters. Then, a simple random
sample of clusters is selected from the population. The researcher
conducts his analysis on data from the sampled clusters.
Types of Variables
Dependent variables
A dependent variable is the variable being tested in a scientific
experiment.
The dependent variable is 'dependent' on the independent variable. As the
experimenter changes the independent variable, the change in the
dependent variable is observed and recorded.
When you take data in an experiment, the dependent variable is the one
being measured.
Examples:
You are interested in learning which kind of chicken produces the largest
eggs. What are the variables here? Which is the dependent variable?
You want to know whether or not stress affects heart rate. What are the
variables here? Which is the dependent variable?
On a graph, dependent variable is plotted on the y-axis.
Types of Variables
Independent variables
An independent variable is defines as the variable that is changed or
controlled in a scientific experiment. It represents the cause or reason
for an outcome.
Independent variables are the variables that the experimenter changes to
test the dependent variable.
A change in the independent variable directly causes a change in the
dependent variable.
Examples:
In a study to determine the effect of temperature on plant pigmentation,
what are the variables? Which is the independent variable?

On a graph, independent variable is plotted on the x-axis.

Types of data (measurement scales)
Nominal scales do not have any quantitative value. “Nominal” scales
could simply be called “labels.” or “names”.
Example: Gender: 1. Male 2. Female
Hair colour: 1. Brown 2. Black 3. Blonde 4. Red

With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values that is important and
significant, but the differences between each one is not really known.
For example, is the difference between “OK” and “Unhappy” the same as
the difference between “Very Happy” and “Happy?”
Types of data (measurement scales)
Interval
Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order,
but also the exact differences between the values.
Example: Celsius temperature because the difference between each
value is the same. For example, the difference between 60 and 50
degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and
70 degrees.

Ratio
Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to measurement
scales because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value
between units, AND they also have an absolute zero–which allows for a
wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied. At
the risk of repeating myself, everything above about interval data applies
to ratio scales + ratio scales have a clear definition of zero. Good
examples of ratio variables include height and weight.