CARBOHYD Simple and complex

RATES
sugars
AT THE END OF THIS
SECTION STUDENTS
SHOULD BE ABLE TO

 1.3. Explain the relationship between the

structure and function of glucose
 Exact molecular ring structure in full
 Distinguish between the structures of alpha and
beta glucose

2
CARBOHYDRATES
  A
group of organic compounds whose molecules
contain atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only.
 Are hydrates of carbon
 The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is
always 2:1
 General formula:
 They are the most abundant organic molecules.
 They are the primary energy storage molecules in
most organisms.
 Energy is released when the covalent bonds are
broken.
3
CARBOHYDRATES CAN BE
CLASSIFIED AS
 Monosaccharides – These contain a single sugar
molecule (e.g. glucose & fructose)

 Disaccharides – these are made up of two sugar

molecules linked by a covalent bond. (e.g.
sucrose)

 Polysaccharides – large molecules made of

many sugar units sugar units linked together.
4
5
MONOSACCHARI
DES
MONOSACCHARIDES
(SIMPLE SUGARS)
 Are the simplest types of carbohydrates

 Their general formula is (CH 2O)n,

 n can be any number from 3 – 7.
 Have the same number of carbon atoms as
oxygen atoms in the molecule

 They all contain a ketone or aldehyde functional

group.

6
MONOSACCHARIDES
(SIMPLE SUGARS)
 They are named according to number of carbons
in their structure or their functional group

 They are soluble

 Dissolve in water to give sweet tasting solutions

 Once in solution, they readily reduce other

chemicals and are called reducing sugars.

7
NOMENCLATURE/CLASSIFIC
ATION
According to number of According to functional
carbons: group.
 Triose – 3 carbons  Aldose – has an aldehyde
functional group (-CHO)
 Tetrose – 4 carbons
 Pentose – 5 carbons
 Ketose – has a ketone
 Hexose – 6 carbons
functional group ( -C=O)
 Heptose – 7 carbons

8
 CLASSIFY THESE SUGARS

Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone

Triose Triose

Aldose Ketose

The structural formulae are given what are the molecular

formulae for these trioses? What is the relationship between
9
these two sugars?
CLASSIFY THESE SUGARS

Aldose Ketose

Hexose Hexose

Glucose Fructose
10
IDENTIFY THESE SUGARS

11
OXIDATION-REDUCTION
(REDOX) REACTIONS
 An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of
chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons
between two species
 When a substance such as a sugar, reduces another
chemical, it takes oxygen, or electrons, from that
chemical or donates hydrogen to it.
 In doing this, the substance or sugar becomes oxidized.
 Oxidation Is Loss of electrons
 Reduction Is Gain of electrons
O I L R I G

12
REDUCING SUGARS
 When in solution they have a free aldehyde or
ketone group.
 They are able to supply electrons and therefore
act as reducing agents.
 They are identified by their ability to reduce Cu 2+
to Cu+, this is seen as a change from blue to brick
red.

13
REDUCING SUGARS

Both these forms of glucose are able to donate electrons

and act as a reducing agent. 14
HEXOSES
 Hexoses are the main source of energy for a living
organism
 Glucose, fructose and galactose

 Compounds with the same molecular formula but

a different arrangement of atoms are called
isomers.
 Same molecular formula, different structural
formulae

15
GLUCOSE
 The most common monosaccharide.
 Molecular formula: C6H12O6
 It is highly soluble.
 It is the primary respiratory substrate of cells.
 It is the only respiratory substrate of brain cells.
 It can be used to synthesise other biomolecules.

16
GLUCOSE: ALPHA & BETA
ISOMERS
 Isomers are molecules with the same chemical
formula but different structural formulae
 Glucose can exist in 2 ring forms. These are
referred to as the alpha (α) and beta (β) forms
 α glucose: the hydroxyl group on carbon 1
projects below the ring
 β glucose: the hydroxyl group on carbon 1
projects above the ring

17
 GLUCOSE

https://www.google.com/url?
sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjZttKVicXdAhVph-
AKHWtfDi0QjRx6BAgBEAU&url=https%3A%2F%2Fthebiochemgazette.wordpress.com%2Ftag
%2Fpolysaccharide%2F&psig=AOvVaw2OQcG1aGTdQbIOYrQiNlZT&ust=1537374490146747 18
 GLUCOSE

http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch05/glucose.html
19
GLUCOSE

20
FRUCTOSE
 Molecular formula: C6H12O6

 Sweetest of all the naturally occurring sugars

 Found in fruits vegetables and honey

21
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4450347/14/images/10/Haworth+Structure+of+Fructose.jpg
22
GALACTOSE
 Molecular
formula:
C6H12O6
 Found in dairy
products, avoca
dos, sugar
beets

23
24
25
26
DISACCHARIDES
AT THE END OF THIS
SECTION STUDENTS
SHOULD BE ABLE TO
 1.2. Discuss that macromolecules are polymers
made up of their individual monomers and
formation and breakage of bonds
 1.4.Explain the relationship between the structure
and function of sucrose
 Exact molecular ring structure in full

27
CONDENSATION &
HYDROLYSIS
 Condensation
 Two smaller molecules join together to form a
larger molecule. One molecule of water is
released:
AOH + BH AB + H2O

 Hydrolysis
 A large molecule reacts with water and splits
into two smaller ones:
AB + H2O AOH + BH
28
DISACCHARIDES
 Are formed when 2 monosaccharides react
together by means of a condensation reaction

Condensation
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + H2O
Hydrolysis

 The covalent bond produced is known as a

glycosidic linkage.
 Glycosidic linkages are found in disaccharides
29
and polysaccharides.
GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGES
1 – 4 glycosidic 1 -6 glycosidic
 Formed between C1  Formed between C1
and C4 of successive and C6 of successive
monomer units. monomer units.
 Is found in  Is found in molecules
disaccharides and un- that have branched
branched chains. chains
 Examples: Maltose,  Example: glycogen and
amylose a constituent amylopectin.
of starch.

30
 GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGES

http://web.sls.hw.ac.uk/teaching/Derek_J/
A13MM1-
web/Lectures/files/polysaccharides/index.
html http://namrataheda.blogspot.com/2013/04
/biomolecules-of-cell-carbohydrates- 31
part_16.html
GLUCOSE RING STRUCTURE

32
GLUCOSE

33
FRUCTOSE

https://socratic.org/questions/can-anyone-explain-to-me-how-to-identify-
34
epimers-and-anomers-in-carbohydrates-su
FRUCTOSE

35
https://illuminolist.wordpress.com/tag/d-l-
 CONDENSATION REACTIONS
The formation of maltose The formation of sucrose

http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-
http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/b c72e-48f5-b51e- 36
i314/summer09/chemone.html f14f21b5eabd@9.45:11
CARBOHYDRATES

37
DISACCHARIDE-MALTOSE
(2 GLUCOSE MOLECULES)

38
SUCROSE

39
SUCROSE
 The most common non-reducing sugar
 It is highly soluble
 It is chemically inert.
 It is the form in which plants transport their food.
 Formed when alpha-glucose condenses with
fructose
 Molecular formula: C12H22O11
 Harvested from the stems of sugar cane
(Saccharum officinarum)

40
DISACCHARIDE - SUCROSE
 Draw on board

41
SUCROSE

42
1

43
44
45
POLYSACCHARID
ES
AT THE END OF THIS
SECTION STUDENTS
SHOULD BE ABLE TO
 1.5. Discuss how the molecular structure of
starch, glycogen and cellulose relate to their
functions in living organisms
 Molecular structure
 Types of bonds
 Chain and ring structure where appropriate
 3D nature
 Hydrolysis and condensation reactions
 Relate structure to properties

46
STARCH
 A polymer of α-glucose
 It is the primary storage polysaccharide in plants
 Is not found in animals
 Has compact & insoluble molecules therefore ideal for in
which to store glucose molecules and these can be
reformed by hydrolysis when needed
 Made up of two different forms
 Amylose (20 – 30%)
 Amylopectin (70 – 80%)

 Starch can be found in tubers, leaves and the endosperm

of seeds(wheat)

47
STARCH
 Has compact & insoluble molecules therefore ideal for in
which to store glucose molecules and these can be
reformed by hydrolysis later, when needed.

48
AMYLOSE
 Linear, un-branched chain that forms a helix.
 One molecule may contain about 1000 α-glucose
residues.
 What bonds exist between the monomer units?
 The bonds cause the chains to coil helically
 Due to the long un-branched chains amylose can be
compacted making it a good storage molecule

49
 50
https://www.smartkitchen.com/resources/amylose
AMYLOSE STRUCTURE
 Many alpha-glucose molecules condense together
forming 1,4 glycosidic bonds, producing long unbranched
chains.
 These chains take a helical (coiled) configuration as each
monomer has a bulky side group which has to be
accommodated.

51
AMYLOSE HELICAL
STRUCTURE

52
AMYLOSE HELICAL
STRUCTURE

53
54
AMYLOPECTIN
 Contain 1000 – 6000 or more α-glucose residues.
 Short chains of 8 – 12 units branch of the main chain
every 24 – 30 monomers.
 At every branch point there is an α- 1,6 glycosidic bond.
 Amylopectin is insoluble in water due to the cross-links
between adjacent hydroxyl groups.

55
 56

https://www.smartkitchen.com/resources/amylopectin
 57
http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/starch.html
58
GLYCOGEN
 The common storage polysaccharide in prokaryotes,
fungi and animals.
 The animal equivalent of starch

 Consist of a main chain with branches every 8 – 12 α-

glucose residues
 Glycogen branches (with α-1,6 glycosidic linkages) more
extensively than starch
 The branching makes glycogen very dense which makes
it easy to store in liver and muscle cells
 Energy reserve

59
GLYCOGEN

60
https://glossary.periodni.com/glossary.php?en=glycogen
 61
http://physicalrules.com/2017/05/glycogen-storage-depletion-and-repletion-week-1/
CELLULOSE

62
CELLULOSE
 The parallel chains of β-glucose interact with each other
via hydrogen bonding
 The OH groups projecting above and below the molecule
hydrogen bond with each other giving cross-linkages
 The repeated hydrogen bonds make cellulose very difficult
to digest, stretch or compress
 Cellulose is indigestible by humans
 Cellulose makes plant cell walls semi-rigid
 Once glucose is incorporated into plants cell walls as
cellulose it is unavailable to the plant as an energy source
 Hundreds of cellulose chains bundle together in units
called microfibrils
63
CELLULOSE
 When two beta-glucose molecules condense together
forming 1,4- glycosidic bonds, alternate molecules are
rotated 180 degrees allowing the appropriate –OH groups
to react.
 This has two effects:

1. The unbranched chains are straighter as the bulky side

groups have to be accommodated on opposite sides
alternately
2. Hydrogen bonds are formed between the -OH groups
and oxygen of adjacent straight chains. This gives
cellulose a strong, fibrous structure.

64
CELLULOSE
 Cellulose has very different properties from starch or
glycogen.
 It does not form grains or small granules and its role is
not storage but structural.
 It is fibrous and strong and is the major component of
plant cell walls.
 This difference reflects the fact that, unlike starch or
glycogen, the monomer of cellulose is beta-glucose.

65
CELLULOSE
 The parallel cellulose molecules form bundles known as
microfibrils and these in turn cluster into microfibrils with
immense tensile strength and stability.
 The bundles are arranged in a gel-like matrix of other
smaller polysaccharides in plant cell walls.

66
 67
http://botanystudies.com/the-cell-wall-and-its-structure/cellulose-structure/
HYDROGEN
BONDING IN
CELLULOSE

68
 69
https://socratic.org/questions/595f411111ef6b615ef01270
70
71
CHITIN & MUREIN
 Independent Reading!!!!!!!!

72
73
CARBOHYDRATE
FOOD TESTS
REDUCING SUGARS
 All monosaccharides, and some disaccharides including
lactose and maltose
 Benedict’s test and Fehling’s test
 Involves copper (II) sulphate solution
 Reducing sugars reduce copper from a valency of 2 to a
valency of 1
 Copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) is reduced to copper (I) oxide
(Cu2O)
Blue solution Brick red precipitate

Ionic equation: Cu2+ + e- Cu+

74
NON-REDUCING SUGAR
 Sucrose is the only common non-reducing sugar
 Must be hydrolysed first by dilute hydrochloric acid
 Acid must be neutralized by adding sodium hydrogen
carbonate (NaHCO3)
 Benedict’s test is then carried out

75
STARCH
 Contains amylose and amylopectin

 Solution to detect starch contains iodine (I2) and

potassium iodide (KI) and is written as I2/KI.
 Forms a polyiodide complex with starch
 Food test solution changes from colourless to blue-black
if starch is present

76