Artery

White blood cells

Platelets

Red blood cells

• Deliver O2
• Remove metabolic wastes
• Maintain temperature, pH, and fluid volume
• Protection from blood loss- platelets
• Prevent infection- antibodies and WBC
• Transport hormones
 Plasma-55%

Buffy coat-<1%

Formed
elements-45%
90% Water
8% Solutes:
• Proteins
Albumin (60 %)
Alpha and Beta Globulins
Gamma Globulins
fibrinogens
• Gas
• Electrolytes
• Organic Nutrients
Carbohydrates
Amino Acids
Lipids
Vitamins
• Hormones
• Metabolic waste
CO2
Urea
• Leukocytes
• Platelets
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
• Leukocytes (white blood cells)
• Platelets (thrombocytes)
Erythrocytes
Erythrocyte7.5m in dia
   Anucleate- so can't reproduce; however, repro
in red bone marrow
   Hematopoiesis- production of RBC
   Function- transport respiratory gases
   Hemoglobin- quaternary structure, 2  chains
and 2  chains
   Lack mitochondria. Why?
  1 RBC contains 280 million hemoglobin
molecules
   Men- 5 million cells/mm3
   Women- 4.5 million cells/mm3
   Life span 100-120 days and then destroyed in
spleen (RBC graveyard)
 Hematopoiesis
• Hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis):
blood cell formation
– Occurs in red bone marrow of
axial skeleton, girdles and
proximal epiphyses of humerus
and femur
 Hematopoiesis
• Hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem
cells)
– Give rise to all formed elements
– Hormones and growth factors push the cell
toward a specific pathway of blood cell
development
• New blood cells enter blood sinusoids
 Erythropoiesis
• Erythropoiesis: red blood cell
production
– A hemocytoblast is transformed into
a proerythroblast
– Proerythroblasts develop into early
erythroblasts
 Erythropoiesis

– Phases in development
1. Ribosome synthesis
2. Hemoglobin accumulation
3. Ejection of the nucleus and
formation of reticulocytes
– Reticulocytes then become
mature erythrocytes
 Stem cell Committed Developmental pathway
cell Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Ribosome Hemoglobin Ejection of
synthesis accumulation nucleus

Proerythro- Early Late Reticulo- Erythro-

Hemocytoblast blast erythroblast erythroblast Normoblast cyte cyte

Figure 17.5
Regulation of Erythropoiesis
• Too few RBCs leads to tissue hypoxia
• Too many RBCs increases blood
viscosity
• Balance between RBC production and
destruction depends on
– Hormonal controls
– Adequate supplies of iron, amino acids,
and B vitamins
 Hormonal Control of
Erythropoiesis

• Erythropoietin (EPO)
– Direct stimulus for erythropoiesis
– Released by the kidneys in
response to hypoxia
 Hormonal Control of
Erythropoiesis
• Causes of hypoxia
– Hemorrhage or increased RBC destruction
reduces RBC numbers
– Insufficient hemoglobin (e.g., iron
deficiency)
– Reduced availability of O2 (e.g., high
altitudes)
 Hormonal Control of
Erythropoiesis
• Effects of EPO
– More rapid maturation of committed bone
marrow cells
– Increased circulating reticulocyte count in
1–2 days
• Testosterone also enhances EPO
production, resulting in higher RBC
counts in males
Formation & Destruction of RBCs
Anemia- when blood has low O2 carrying
capacity; insufficient RBC or iron deficiency.
Factors that can cause anemia- exercise, B12
deficiency
Polycythemia- excess of erythrocytes, 
viscosity of blood;
8-11 million cells/mm3
Usually caused by cancer, tissue hypoxia,
dehydration; however, naturally occurs at high
elevations
Blood doping- in athletesremove blood 2
days before event and then replace it; Epoetin;-
banned by Olympics.
Sickle-cell anemia-
HbS results from a change in just one of
the 287 amino acids in the  chain in the
globin molecule.
Found in 1 out of 400 African Americans.
Abnormal hemoglobin crystalizes when
O2 content of blood is low, causing RBCs
to become sickle-shaped.
Homozygous for sickle-cell is deadly, but
in malaria infested countries, the
heterozygous condition is beneficial.
Genetics of Sickle Cell Anemia

Genetics of Sickle Cell Anemia

 4,000-11,000 cells/mm 3

Never let monkeys eat bananas

Granulocytes
Neutrophils- 40-70%
Eosinophils- 1-4%
Basophils- <1%
Agranulocytes
Monocytes- 4-8%
Lymphocytes- 20-45%
 Eosinophil Lymphocyte
Basophil

platelet

Neutrophil
Monocyte
 eosinophil

neutrophil
monocyte

RBC
neutrophil
monocyte

lymphocyte

lymphocyte
basophil
ID WBC’s
Leukocyte Squeezing Through Capillary Wall
• Leukopenia
• Abnormally low WBC count—drug induced
• Leukemias
• Cancerous conditions involving WBCs
• Named according to the abnormal WBC
clone involved
• Mononucleosis
• highly contagious viral disease caused by
Epstein-Barr virus; excessive # of
agranulocytes; fatigue, sore throat, recover
in a few weeks
 Platelets
• Small fragments of megakaryocytes
• Formation is regulated by
thrombopoietin
• Blue-staining outer region, purple
granules
• Granules contain serotonin, Ca2+,
enzymes, ADP, and platelet-derived
growth factor (PDGF)
Stem cell Developmental pathway

Hemocyto- Promegakaryocyte
blast Megakaryoblast Megakaryocyte Platelets

Figure 17.12
Hemostasis- stoppage of bleeding
Platelets: 250,000-500,000 cells/mm3

Tissue Damage

Platelet Plug

Clotting Factors
Hemostasis:
1. Vessel injury

2. Vascular spasm

3. Platelet plug formation

4. Coagulation
 Hemostasis
(+ feedback)

Clotting Factors
thromboplastin

Prothrombin Thrombin

Fibrinogen Fibrin
Traps RBC & platelets

Platelets release thromboplastin

Blood
Clot
RBC

Platelet

Fibrin thread
 Disorders of Hemostasis
• Thromboembolytic disorders:
undesirable clot formation
• Bleeding disorders: abnormalities that
prevent normal clot formation
Thromboembolytic Conditions
• Thrombus: clot that develops and persists in
an unbroken blood vessel
– May block circulation, leading to tissue death
• Embolus: a thrombus freely floating in the
blood stream
– Pulmonary emboli impair the ability of the body to
obtain oxygen
– Cerebral emboli can cause strokes
Thromboembolytic Conditions
• Prevented by
– Aspirin
• Antiprostaglandin that inhibits thromboxane
A2
– Heparin
• Anticoagulant used clinically for pre- and
postoperative cardiac care
– Warfarin
• Used for those prone to atrial fibrillation
Thrombocytosis- too many platelets due to
inflammation, infection or cancer

Thrombocytopenia- too few platelets

• causes spontaneous bleeding
• due to suppression or destruction of bone
marrow (e.g., malignancy, radiation)
– Platelet count <50,000/mm3 is diagnostic
– Treated with transfusion of concentrated
platelets
 
• Impaired liver function
– Inability to synthesize procoagulants
– Causes include vitamin K deficiency,
hepatitis, and cirrhosis
– Liver disease can also prevent the
liver from producing bile, impairing fat
and vitamin K absorption
 Bleeding Disorders

• Hemophilias include several similar

hereditary bleeding disorders
• Symptoms include prolonged
bleeding, especially into joint
cavities
• Treated with plasma transfusions
and injection of missing factors
Hemophiliac- a sex-linked recessive trait, primarily
carried by males (x chromosome)
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O
Blood type is based on the presence of 2 major antigens in
RBC membranes-- A and B
Blood type Antigen Antibody
A A anti-B
B B anti-A
A&B AB no anti body
Neither A or B O anti-A and anti-B

Antigen- protein on the surface of a RBC membrane

Antibody- proteins made by lymphocytes in plasma which are

made in response to the presence of antigens.
They attack foreign antigens, which result in clumping
(agglutination)
 ABO Blood Types
b

b Produces
b Type anti-B
antibodies
A
b
b

b
b
 ABO Blood Types

a
a

a Produces
Type anti-A
a
a B antibodies
a
a
a a
ABO Blood Types

Produces
Type neither
anti-A nor
AB anti-B
antibodies
 ABO Blood Types
b a
b
a
a
b Produces
b
a
Type both anti-A
a
O and anti-B
a antibodies
b a
b
a a
a
b
b
Rh Factor and Pregnancy

                                                                                                              

RH+ indicates protein

RH- indicates no protein
 Rh Factor
and
Pregnancy

Rh+ mother w/Rh- baby– no problem

Rh- mother w/Rh+ baby– problem
Rh- mother w/Rh- father– no problem
Rh- mother w/Rh- baby-- no problem

RhoGAM used @ 28 weeks

Type AB- universal recipients
Type O- universal donor
 
Rh factor:
Rh+ 85% dominant in pop
Rh- 15% recessive

Blood Type Clumping Antibody

A antigen A anti-A serum antibody anti-b
B antigen B anti-B serum antibody anti-a
AB antigen A & B anti A & B serum -
O neither A or B no clumping w/ either anti A or B anti-a,
anti-b
Blood being tested Serum
Anti-A Anti-B
Type AB (contains
agglutinogens A and B;
agglutinates with both
sera)
RBCs

Type A (contains
agglutinogen A;
agglutinates with anti-A)

Type B (contains
agglutinogen B;
agglutinates with anti-B)

Type O (contains no
agglutinogens; does not
agglutinate with either
serum)
Figure 17.16
Blood Type & Rh How Many Have It Frequency

O Rh Positive 1 person in 3 37.4%

O Rh Negative 1 person in 15 6.6%
A Rh Positive 1 person in 3 35.7%
A Rh Negative 1 person in 16 6.3%
B Rh Positive 1 person in 12 8.5%
B Rh Negative 1 person in 67 1.5%
AB Rh Positive 1 person in 29 3.4%
AB Rh Negative 1 person in 167 .6%
ABO Blood Types
Phenotype Genotype
O i i
A I A I A or I A
i
B I I or I
B B B

i
AB IAIB
 Punnett square
Type A and Type B cross
IB i

IA IAIB I Ai

IA I AI B IAi
 INQUIRY
1. What is an erythrocyte, leukocyte, and thrombocyte?
2. What 2 things do red cells lack compared to white
cells?
3. What dietary component is needed for the production
of red blood cells?
4. The largest cells in the blood that leave the
bloodstream to become macrophages are ____.
5. In an acute infection, the white cell count would show
as ______.
6. Erythroblastosis fetalis , also known as hemolytic
newborn disease, occurs in ____ mothers carrying
____ fetuses.
7. What antigens and antibodies found on AB red cells?
8. In a transfusion, what type blood can you give a type
O person?