UNIT - I

Introduction

• High voltages are used for a wide variety of applications connecting the power
systems, industry and research lab.
• Modern civilization high voltages are applied in lab nuclear research, in particle
accelerators and Van de graff generator.
• Modern high voltage test lab use voltages up to 6 MV or more.
• Insulation used are gases, vacuum, solid and liquid or combination of these.
• The Rio Madeira transmission link in Brazil, with an overhead length of 2,385km,
is the world's longest power transmission line. The 600kV high-voltage direct
current (HVDC) bipolar line was brought into commercial operation in November
2013 and is capable of transmitting 7.1GW of power.
Power Grid Corporation of India is also building India's first UHVDC transmission
line, the 1,728km 800kV North-East Agra UHVDC link, capable of transmitting
8,000MW of power. The project is being delivered by ABB and is scheduled for
commissioning in 2015. It will be the longest power transmission line in the
country upon commissioning.
Transmission – high voltage
Diagram
• The Raichur-Sholapur 765KV single-circuit transmission line is the highest
voltage transmission line in india . Today, commercial line exist up to
765kV and apart from AC(alternating current) technology, there is
widespread deployment of DC(direct current) lines. In terms of high
voltage direct current (HVDC) lines, India is establishing lines with ultra
high voltages of even ±800kV. An outstanding aspect of India’s power
transmission endeavours has been the effort to set up ultra high voltage
power transmission lines at 1,200kV—the highest voltage level anywhere
in the world as yet. Though India has yet to establish 1,200kV power
transmission technology on a commercial scale, a good beginning has been
made by setting up testing facilities in Bina UHVAC test station in Madhya
Pradesh.
Electrical power needs to be transmitted over longer distances from 
generating stations to electrical substations to be distributed to the consumers.
Though DC transmission system was the first to born, soon it was replaced by 
AC transmission system. Earlier DC systems developed by the Edison's
company could not transmit the power more than a couple of kilometers.

Thus, only the customers within that much short range of the dc power plants
could get the power supply. As the transmission distance increases, voltage
drops significantly due to the I2R loss.

A solution for this is to increase the transmission line voltage. But, there was
no convenient way to change the voltage level of DC power. With the
development of AC, it became very easy to change the voltage levels of AC
power using transformers.

Power could now be transferred over longer distances using AC, by stepping
up the voltage level for transmission and stepping down again for utilization. A
vast majority of transmission systems today use three phase High Voltage AC
(HVAC) power. But, the developments in power electronics made us reconsider
the DC power for transmission purposes. The AC vs. DC question has been
around since the era of the war of currents.
Improvements In DC System

A major problem that Edison could not solve was how to increase the 
transmission voltage of DC for transmitting the power over longer distances. With
the development of mercury arc valves, it became easier to convert the power
between AC and DC. The AC power could now be converted into DC after stepping
up the voltage using a transformer and, at the end of the transmission line, it could
be converted back into AC for stepping down.

This made High Voltage DC transmission technically feasible. Using this

technology, the world's first HVDC transmission link was built by ABB in the late
1950s. However, the converter equipment was very large and expensive and
required a lot of maintenance. Soon after, solid state thyristor valves were
developed.

They were smaller and cost effective. Improvements in power electronics are
responsible for the big improvements in HVDC technology. Today, HVDC
technology is used as a highly efficient alternative for a huge amount of electric
power transmission and for interconnecting power grids with different frequencies.
comparison Of HVAC And HVDC Transmission
Investment cost:
DC transmission requires fewer conductors
than AC transmission - 2 conductors per DC
circuit whereas three conductors per 3 phase
AC circuit. HVDC allows line supporting towers
to be smaller and, hence, requires lesser right-
of-way. Thus, clearly, HVDC transmission line
would cost lesser than an HVAC line. However,
the terminal converter stations in HVDC are
much more expensive which are not required
for HVAC transmission. Over a specific
distance, called as break-even distance, HVDC
line becomes cheaper than HVAC. The break-
even distance for overhead lines is around 600
km and for submarine lines it is around 50 km.
Losses:
Skin effect is absent in DC. Also, corona losses are significantly lower in the case of DC.
An HVDC line has considerably lower losses compared to HVAC over longer distances.

Controllability:
Due to the absence of inductance in DC, an HVDC line offers better voltage regulation.
Also, HVDC offers greater controllability compared to HVAC.

Asynchronous interconnection:
AC power grids are standardized for 50 Hz in some countries and 60 Hz in other. It is
impossible to interconnect two power grids working at different frequencies with the
help of an AC interconnection. An HVDC link makes this possible.

Interference with nearby communication lines:

Interference with nearby communication lines is lesser in the case of HVDC overhead
line than that for an HVAC line.

Short circuit current:

In longer distance HVAC transmission, short circuit current level in the receiving system
is high. An HVDC system does not contribute to the short circuit current of the
interconnected AC system.
Conclusion
HVDC transmission system has many more advantages over HVAC, such as
stability, controllability etc.. For distances longer than the break-even distance,
HVDC system becomes more cost effective. Submarine HVDC links can be more
suitable for connecting offshore wind farms as they prove to be more efficient and
cost effective than undersea HVAC cables. Hence, there is an increasing interest in
HVDC transmission. Still, HVAC system will remain much longer as it has its own
advantages in transmission and distribution, such as it can be easily stepped up
and stepped down. HVDC is actually a complement for AC systems rather than a
rival.
 Trends (present trend )

• High voltages ( up to 300 kV)

• Extra High voltages ( 300 kV – 765 kV)

• Ultra High voltages ( above 765 kV)

• IN INDIA – 33kV, 66kV, 132kV,220kV and 400 kV

• Next higher voltages 800kV, 1000kV and 1200 kV.

• Rapid increase of load , remote generation and system

interconnections have made it necessary to transmit more power over
longer distances efficiency and easily to cope up with the demand.
 Transmission system involves

• Terminal substation
• Intermediate substation
• Transmission line
• Other related control and auxiliaries equipment.
 Tasks-
• Transfer of electric power at specified voltage and frequency.
• Control and power transfer in terms of magnitude and directions.
• Ensuring steady state and transient stability of the transmission link and
associated network .
• Control of P & Q
• Control of Vs & Vr
• f – control
• Power system security
• Line capacity or line load ability
• Data transmission for the purpose of telemetry, telecontrol (for simple
monitoring and supervision task system), network automation &
communication (SCADA systems which is especially good when there are
parameters that need monitoring that are a distance from the main
network)
 Standardization of transmission voltage-
• A country adopted a system of voltage levels to suit its one requirements
earlier individual attempt were made of fix voltage level for high power
transmission but such an attempt had resulted in wastage of time and
higher cost because of design of valid.
• India
• Rated voltage 132 220 275 345 400 500 750
145 245 300 362 420 525 765
• Advantages of transmitting electrical power at high voltage
 P = VI
V = P/I or I = P/V

• Pr = I2R so to reduce I2R losses so we need high voltage

 PL α 1/HV
• HV PL

IN Transmission efficiency reduction in conductor material (conductor

Therefore
materialα 1/ V2)

 construction of power station for huge power transmission is more

economical than that of low power transmission
 the generating station like HPS, TPS, NPS are located in remote areas ( for
away from load centers ) be cause of reasons of economy, feasibility and
safety environmental conditions) EHV is therefore essential for transmission
of huge block of power over long distances from these power plants.
• GS load center
huge distance
HV
 flexibility for future system growth.
 Possibility of interconnection of power system.
(constant EHV transmission it is not practically possible)
 increase in transmission capacity.

Power transferred through T line P = V1V2/X Sinδ

δ load angle, X = line reactance
Pα V

 COST OF TRSNSMISSION LINE DECREASE WITH INCREASE IN

TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE
 Problems involved in high voltage transmission
 Corona loss- The process of ionization in the air around the line conductor
accompanied with hissing sound & yellowish blue glow is called corona.
This problem occurs during high voltage transmission.
 Line supports – EHV lines have large mechanical loading on towers
because of bundle conductors, large air ground clearance & considerable
dynamic forces. TLs towers with fabricated steel members have mostly
been used which involves high cost.
 Insulation Requirements – insulation provided to electrical installations is
subjected not only to normal operating voltage but has to withstand a
variety of overvoltage because of lightning, switching etc. Both are
considered for EHV. Line is protected against
1. Lightning (LA)
2. Ground wires
3. Auto reclosing CB
4. Tower footing resistance
 Environmental & Biological aspects – Research in the field shows that
EHV & UHV lines generate electrostatic & electromagnetic fields. These
fields can induce current & voltage in animals, human beings & birds.
However these effects are minimum & are within tolerate limits.
Transmission lines also produce audible noise (eg. hissing) in EHV range.
However these noise do not exceed the satisfactory noise level upto 500
kV.
 Increased short ckt currents & possibility of ferro resonance condition
 Electrostatic & magnetic fields of EHV lines.
 Stability consideration - power transferred by generator through the
transmission line is expressed as
P = VsVR/X Sinδ
Parallel G & C formed between phase & neutral through some insulation like
air.
• The IEC & its national counterparts ( IET, IEEE, VDE, etc.) define high
voltage ckts as those with more than 1000 V for AC & at least 1500 V for DC.
• AC System – HV – 35 – 220 kV
• Extra HV - greater than 330 kV & less than 1000 kV
• Ultra HV - 1000 kV & above
• DC system – HVDC levels – 600kV
• UHVDC – above 600kV

 High voltage engineering consists of

 Generation
 Measurement
 Control of high voltages
 Dielectric discharges
 Electrical insulation breakdown
 Over voltages & their protection
 Electrical insulation condition monitoring
 High voltage testing techniques & equipments
 High voltage equipments (examples)
• Windings of a 220 kV transformer
• 750 kV transmission lines
• SF6 gas insulated switchgear (CB)
• Oil filled X - mer
• Metal oxide arresters (LA)
• Testing X - mer
• DC voltage generator
• HVAC test source
• Impulse Current generator
• Distribution X - mer
 Need for generating high voltages in
laboratory
 A HV lab needs to be established to carry out fundamental studies on
• Insulating materials
• To carry out the performance evaluation of proto types & to assess the
condition of HV power apparatus before their erection & installation.
• Any lab should have a high voltage alternating source with associated
measuring equipment
• (i) Critical disruptive voltage
• It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona occurs.
• Consider two conductors of radii r cm and spaced d cm apart.  If V is the
phase-neutral potential,then potential gradient at the conductor surface is
given by:
• g =[V/ r loge (d/r)] volts / cm
• In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the
breakdown strength of air.  The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm
pressure and temperature of 25ºC is 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2 kV/cm
(r.m.s.) and is denoted by go.
• Corona loss
• The power dissipated in the system due to corona discharges is called
corona loss. Accurate estimation of corona loss is difficult because of its
variable nature. It has been found that the corona loss under fair weather
condition is less than under foul weather conditions. The corona loss under
appropriate weather conditions is given below by the Peek’s formula;
• Where,
• Pc – corona power loss
f – frequency of supply in Hz
δ – air density factor
En – r.m.s phase voltage in kV
Eo – disruptive critical voltage per phase in kV
r – radius of the conductor in meters
D – spacing between conductors in meters
 Types of lab
 Indoor type
 Outdoor type (For extreme high voltage)
 Dimensions and size of lab of lab depends upon –
a. Highest voltage for which lab is designed. A design engineer decides the
highest voltage of EHV lab to be installed
b. No. of various lab equipments
c. Air gap clearance between equipments to be maintained.
d. Type of test to be conducted & size of specimen to be tested.
 Example - Example (one of the oldest labs of EE Dept IIT khargpur)
max rating 600 kV
 Major activities - research & development
 Consultancy
 Classes for UG & PG
 Various activities –
a) Impulse test on X – mer, corona discharges & breakdown observation,
capacitance measurement of cables, design of superconducting cables, &
transformer oil testing (Impulse voltage generator of 3 million volts. 150
kJ)
b) Power frequency Cascade Transformers setup of 1800kV(ie. 3 nos. of 600
kV each)
c) Power frequency Transformers one each of 50 kV & 100 kV, 10 kVA
• The EHV test laboratory consists of an indoor laboratory and an outdoor
laboratory test bay. Indoor laboratory is a high voltage test hall of
dimensions 50mX40mX35m housing a 3MV, 150kJ impulse generator, a
rain making equipment and power frequency testing transformers of
ratings, a) 150kV, 300kVA. b) 100kV, 100mA and
d)600kV,2000kVA.

The outdoor test bay consists of a 1800kV, 2000kVA cascade transformer

comprising of three 600kV, 2000kVA transformer units. All these
transformer units and the 600kV, 2000kVA transformer located in the
indoor test hall are all similar for the convenience of inter changeability.
The Ac test voltage up to 800kV from the outdoor bay can be taken into
the high voltage test hall by means of a wall bushing
 Important applications of HVE
I.Industrial applications
 Photocopying
 Electrostatic precipitator
 Electrostatic coating
 Electrostatic separation of minerals
 X rays
 HV are applied in lab in nuclear research in particle accerators &
Vandegraff Generators
 voltages upto 100kV are used in anticipators in automobile ignition
coils
 X Ray' equipment for medical
 HV test lab employs voltages up to 6 MV or more.
 Equipments used in HVE lab

 IG (Impulse generator)
 Voltage dividers
 Cascaded X mer
 Sphere gap unit
 Reactors
 Control room equipments
 DC G
 Hall generators
 Various other auxiliary equipment
 Rogowski coil equipment
In an electrostatic powder coating process, coating application is
achieved by spraying powder through an electrostatic field,
charging the particles, which are then deposited on a grounded
part. Heat is applied, the powder particles fuse into a continuous
film, and the part is then cooled. Electrostatic spraying of
thermoplastic powder coatings is very similar to that of
conventional thermoset powder coatings and many applicators
use both on the same coating line performing multiple
changeovers in a single day with minimal process changes
High voltage lab in India
 UNIT – II
Breakdown phenomena

• There are many problems such as resistivity, breakdown voltage, thermal

stability etc that determine the suitability of a material to be used as
insulating material.

• Various properties-
 Electrical properties
a) High resistivity and high insulation resistance
b) Low conductivity
c) High dielectric strength and constant
d) Less dielectric loss and low loss tangent
e) Low dissipation factor
f) Low permittivity
Mechanical properties
a) High mechanical strength
b) Molecules of materials should be uniformly distributed throughout the
whole body
c) Material should not be deteriorate

Chemical properties
d) Less reactive
e) There should be no chemical deterioration
f) Non – inflammable
g) There should be no oxidation when exposed to atmosphere & moisture
h) Non hygroscopic
Thermal properties
a) High thermal strength
b) Least thermal expansion
c) High thermal conductivity & no thermal deterioration

Classification
Based on their materials-
a) Solids
b) Liquids
c) Gaseous
• Dissipation factor and loss tangent
• The dissipation factor can be defined as: the value of the tendency of
dielectric materials to absorb some of the energy when an AC signal is
applied.
• The loss tangent is defined as: the tangent of the difference of the phase
angle between capacitor voltage and capacitor current with respect to the
theoretical 90 degree value anticipated, this difference being caused by the
dielectric losses within the capacitor. The value δ (Greek letter delta) is
also known as the loss angle.
• Where:
    δ = loss angle (Greek letter delta)
    DF = dissipation factor
    Q = quality factor
    ESR = equivalent series resistance
    Xc = reactance of the capacitor in ohms.
• Non-hydroscopic materials are much less polarized than their hygroscopic
cousins, and less likely to suck in water from the environment. They will
normally need a level of drying to remove surface moisture, and to extract
water from filler components. If not, there is a likelihood of structural and
aesthetic damage to end products.
• In a self sustained discharge the potential gradient is sufficiently high that
free electrons are accelerated hard enough to ionise atoms they collide
with. This means that as the current flows it keeps a population of ions and
free electrons present. In this type of system, once you have got a current
flowing the current continues to flow.
• However if the potential gradient is too low, free electrons cannot ionise
other atoms, and the population of ions and free electrons is rapidly
depleted. You need some external influence to ionise the gas in order to get
current to flow. This is a non self sustained discharge.