2013 International Conference on Power, Energy and Control (ICPEC)

Comparative Study of HVDC and HVAC for a

Bulk Power Transmission
T.Halder, Assistant Professor,
Electrical Engineering Department,
Kalyani Government Engineering College &
Government College of Engineering &Textile Technology Berhampore
West Bengal, India

Abstract—The paper advocates a comparative study of HVDC
and HVAC power system. The High voltage direct current
(HVDC) is preferred technology for sending a chunk of power
across long distances with fewer losses. HVDC results in higher
efficiency, excellent voltage profile, regulation, economical, lesser
conductor, no reactive power compensation, healthy stability and
reliability than an equivalently-sized high voltage alternating
current (HVAC) system transmitting the same amount of power
Keywords—HVDC; HVAC, Performance analysis,
Converter and Result
I. INTRODUCTION
higher power loads need to be transported over long distances
across land, more and more thinking goes into creating HVDC
electricity highways
II. ADVANTAGES OF HVDC OVER HVAC TRANSMISSION
The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large
amounts of power over long distances with lower capital costs
and with lower losses than AC. Depending on voltage level
and construction details, losses are quoted as about 3% per
Power
1,000 km. [4-15] High-voltage direct current transmission
allows efficient use of energy sources remote from load
centers. In a number of applications HVDC is more effective

M ore efficient over long distances, HVDC transmission

can move more power with less electrical losses than an
equivalent AC transmission line [1-15]. Lower cost higher
efficiency means a lower transmission cost, helping renewable
energy compete against other power sources. Improved
Reliability: HVDC transmission can enhance system stability,
allows the operator complete control over power flow, and
facilitate the integration of wind from different resource areas.
HVDC transmission lines require narrower right-of-way
footprints, using less land, than equivalent AC lines. The major
advantage of DC power lines is their efficiency—less energy is
lost as it is transmitted and there is no need for reactive
compensation along the line. Because DC flows steadily
through the wires without changing track many times each
second and through the entire conductor rather than at the
surface, DC transmission lines typically lose less power than
AC transmission lines. In addition to upgrading and expanding
the existing Alternating Current (AC) grid networks, there will
be an increasing need to build “electricity highways”, creating
a powerful and reliable backbone structure for Europe’s
electricity supplies. Direct Current (DC) technology is
appropriate when considering a long distance overlay net. With
this paper, Europ cable seeks to provide an authoritative source
of information about DC underground cable technology. So
far, HVDC transmission has mainly been used in submarine
applications, either connecting offshore wind farms to land or
Transmitting electricity over long distance through the sea
where overhead lines cannot be used. The HVDC cables are
beginning to be used also for land transmission projects. As
This work was supported in part by the Jadavpur University, Kolkata-32 ,
India and Kalyani Government Engineering college , Nadia , West Bengal ,
India. T.Halder is with Kalyani Government Engineering College, Kalyani,
Nadia, West Bengal, India e-mail: tapas_haldar@yahoo.com.
978-1-4673-6030-2/13/$31.00 ©2013 IEEE
than AC transmission. Examples include [1-15]. Marine
cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC losses
(e.g., 250 km Baltic Cable between Sweden and Germany and
the 600 km Nor Ned cable between Norway and the
Netherlands) .Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power
transmission without intermediate 'taps', for example, in
remote areas .Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid
in situations where additional wires are difficult or expensive
to install power transmission and stabilization between
unsynchronized AC distribution systems Connecting a remote
generating plant to the distribution grid, as for example Nelson
River Bipole.
Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing
prospective short circuit current Reducing line cost. HVDC
needs fewer conductors as there is no need to support multiple
phases. Also, thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does
not suffer from the skin effect facilitate power transmission
between different countries that use AC at differing voltages
and/or frequencies Synchronize AC produced by renewable
energy sources Long undersea high voltage cables have a high
electrical capacitance, since the conductors are surrounded by a
relatively thin coating of insulation and a metal cover. The
geometry is that of a long co-axial capacitor. Where alternating
current is passed through cable transmission, this capacitance
appears in parallel with load. Extra current must flow in the
cable to charge the cable capacitance, which generates
additional losses in the conductors of the cable. Additionally,
there is a dielectric loss component in the material of the cable
insulation, consumer’s power. When, however, DC supply is
used, the cable capacitance is only charged when the cable is
first keyed up or when the voltage is changed; there is no
steady-state surplus current required. For a long AC undersea
cable, the entire current-carrying capacity of the conductor
could be used to supply the charging current alone. This limits
the length of AC cables. DC cables have no such limitation.
139
 2013 International Conference on Power, Energy and Control (ICPEC)
Although some DC leakage current continues to flow through
the dielectric, this is very small compared to the cable rating.
HVDC can carry more power per conductor because, for a
given power rating, the constant voltage in a DC line is lower
than the peak voltage in an AC line. In AC power, the root
mean square (RMS) voltage measurement is considered the
standard, but RMS is only about 75% of the peak voltage. The
peak voltage of AC determines the actual insulation thickness
and conductor spacing. Because DC operates at an invariable
highest voltage, this allows existing transmission line corridors
with equally sized conductors and insulation to carry 100%
more power into an area of high power consumption than AC,
which can lower costs. Because HVDC allows power
transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution systems,
it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading
failures from propagating from one part of a wider power
transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause
portions of an AC network to become unsynchronized and
separate would not similarly affect a DC link, and the power
flow through the DC link would be liable to stabilize the AC
system. The scale and trend of power flow through a DC link
can be directly commanded, and changed as needed to support
the AC networks at either end of the DC link. This has caused
many power system operators to contemplate wider use of
HVDC technology for its stability benefits alone.
III. MERIT-DEMERIT OF HVDC OVER HVAC TRANSMISSION
The demerits of HVDC are in conversion, switching, control,
availability and overall maintenance. The required static
inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity. At
smaller transmission distances the losses in the static inverters
may be bigger than in an AC transmission line. The outlay of
the inverters may not be counterbalance by reductions in line
erection cost and lower line loss. With two exceptions, all
earlier mercury rectifiers global have been dismantled or
replaced by thyristor units. Pole 1 of the HVDC proposal
between the North and South Islands of New Zealand still uses
mercury arc rectifiers, as does Pole 1 of the Vancouver Island
link in Canada. In contrast to AC systems realizing multi-
terminal systems is very multipart, as it is expanding the
existing formats to multi-terminal systems. Controlling power
flow in a multi-terminal DC system necessitates fine message
between all the terminals; power flow must be actively
regulated by the inverter control system instead of the inherent
properties of the transmission line. Multi-terminal lines are
rare. One is in operation at the Hydro Québec - New England
transmission from Radisson to Sandy Pond. Another case is the
Sardinia-mainland Italy link which was modified in 1989 to
also endow with power to the island of Corsica. HVDC is less
consistent and has lower availability than AC systems, mainly
due to the extra adaptation of equipments. Single pole systems
have accessibility of about 98.5%, with about a third of the
downtime unscheduled due to faults. Fault redundant bipolar
systems provide high availability for 50% of the link capacity,
but availability of the full capacity is about 97% to 98%. High
voltage DC circuit breakers are difficult to build because some
mechanism must be included in the circuit breaker to force
current to zero, otherwise arcing and contact wear would be
too great to allocate dependable switching. Working a HVDC
method requires many spare parts to be kept, often exclusively
for one system as HVDC systems are less standardized than
AC systems and technology changes faster
Fig. 1 Basic concept of HVDC
AC system is used in the transmission of bulk power, instead
of DC (Direct Current), because of its ability to renovate
voltage to various levels using a transformer.
Ability to transform voltage and to flow power in two
opposite directions (bidirectional) are the only major
advantages of AC system over DC system. DC transmission
system on the other hand has more advantages over AC
transmission system.
The industrial growth of a nation requires increased
consumption energy, particularly electrical energy. This has
lead to increase in the generation and transmission facilities to
meet the increasing demand. The generation can be increased
to the required level but the problem is in transmission due to
the thermal limit, because the transmission line load ability is
fixed up to 60% of the power to be transmitted.
IV. NUISANCES OF HVAC TRANSMISSION
The following are the disadvantages in HVAC transmission
lines:
• Thermal limit
• Corona loss
• Skin effect
• Ferranti effect
• Economics of transmission
• Technical performance
• Reliability
V. THERMAL LIMIT OF HVAC
Thermal limits usually determine the maximum power flow
for lines. Thermal power flow limits on overhead lines are
intended to limit the temperature attained by the energized
conductors and the resulting sag and loss of tensile strength.
The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line
is limited. The origins of the limits vary depending on the
length of the line. The increase in thermal limit of the
transmission system increases the cost of insulation and also it
increases the cost of Transformers, Switch gear and other
terminal apparatus.
VI. CORONA LOSSES IN HVAC &HVDC SYSTEM
A corona is a process by which a current, perhaps sustained,
develops from an electrode with a high potential in a neutral
fluid, usually air, by ionizing that fluid so as to create plasma
around the electrode. The ions generated eventually pass
charge to nearby areas of lower potential, or recombine to form
neutral gas molecules. Copper losses and Corona losses are the
major losses of the grid. When the weather is stormy, the
140
 2013 International Conference on Power, Energy and Control (ICPEC)
number of ions or electrons is more than the normal, and as Vop= Operating voltage of HVDC system
such the corona may occur at much less voltage, Vc as Vph= Phase to neutral voltage
compared with fair weather. The common expression of corona b= Barometric pressure at any pressure and F is the factor
loss for HVAC system, KW/Km/Phase is given by ranging from 0.012 to 8 depending on the weather conditions
⎛ f + 25 ⎞ r of ambient at temperature, t.
(
PAC = 241 * 10 −6 ⎜⎜ ) ⎟⎟ (Vph − VC )2 (1) It is found that δ1 and mo reduces drastically at bad weather
⎝ δ1 ⎠ D condition, so the corresponding value of Vc is literally reduces,
⎛D⎞ so there is a prospect of grid failure due to huge corona losses
VC = g o m o rδ1ln⎜ ⎟KV/Phase (2) in power lines. The above modus operandi is also constructive
⎝r⎠ to revise the corona losses during the unclean climate condition
3.92b
δ1 = At N.T. P (3) VII. SKIN EFFECT OF HVAC
273 + t The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current
When corona losses are low, the loss formulae becomes as:
(AC) to distribute itself within a conductor so that the current
21 *10 −6 fVph2 density near the surface of the conductor is greater than that at
PC = F (4) its core. That is, the electric current tends to flow at the "skin"
⎛D⎞ of the conductor. The skin effect causes the effective resistance
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝r⎠ of the conductor to increase with the frequency of the current.
Skin effect is due to eddy currents set up by the AC current.
⎛ Vph ⎞ The skin effect has practical consequences in the design of
And ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ < 1.8 (5)
radio-frequency and microwave circuits and to some extent in
⎝ VC ⎠
AC electrical power transmission and distribution systems.
The common expression of corona loss for HVDC system,
Also, it is of considerable importance when designing
KW/Km/Phase is given by
discharge tube circuits. This outcome can be minimized by
( )⎛ 25 ⎞ r
PDC = 241 * 10 −6 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (
Vph − VC 2 ) (6) using, Moose or ACSR (Aluminum conductor steel reinforce)
conductors which has the property to minimize the skin effect.
⎝ δ1 ⎠ D
Loss ratio of HDC and HVAC is given by But it adds to the cost contrast to common conductors.
25 VIII. FERRANTI EFFECT OF HVDC
LR = (7)
f + 25 The Ferranti Effect is a rise in voltage occurring at the
receiving end of a long transmission line, relative to the
Now putting f =50 Hz and other terms remaining constant, then voltage at the sending end, which occurs when the line is
equation (7) reduces as: charged but there is a very light load or the load is
25 1 disconnected. This effect is due to the voltage drop across the
LR = = (8) line inductance (due to charging current) being in phase with
50 + 25 3 the sending end voltages. Therefore both capacitance and
Similarly, corona losses of HVDC system are given by the inductance are accountable for producing this phenomenon.
following parameters in mono polar system as: The Ferranti Effect will be more pronounced the longer the
⎛ 2h ⎞ line and the higher the voltage applied. The relative voltage
VC = g o m o rδ1 ln⎜ ⎟KV (9) rise is proportional to the square of the line length. Due to high
⎝ r ⎠
capacitance, the Ferranti Effect is much more pronounced in
And bipolar HVDC system given as:
underground cables, even in short lengths
⎛D⎞ 1
VC = 2g o m o rδ 1ln⎜ ⎟ KV (10) IX. HVDC IN INDIA
⎝r ⎠ ⎛D⎞
2
1+ ⎜ ⎟ The Talcher to Kolar 400KV HVDC, Rihand via Darin
⎝ 2h ⎠ Chandrapur to Padghe (Mumbai) 800 kV HVDC power
The corona losses in a bipolar line are given as: Transmission line from Gomati River–Nidhaura (near Kanpur).
(
PDC = Po + g o m o rδ 1 Vop − VC )2 kW/km (11) The 800 kV, 6000 MW North East-Agra multi-terminal HVDC
link. HVDC Rihand – Fatehpur & Shikohabad to Dadari
Where, mo = 0.97 to 0.92 for roughened or weather wires Transmission line for NTPC (PGCIL), 800 kV HVDC
go = 33KV/cm, Air dielectric strength at N.T.P Transmission Line from Barabisa to Islampur (283 km) by
δ1 =Air density correction factor Tata Power, HVDC Sileru-Barsoor Sileru and etc.
r= Radius of the line conductor
X. HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION
P0 = (0.3 to 0.5) kW/km
D= Spacing of the conductors Modern DC power transmission is relatively a new technology
h= Height of the conductor above in earth which made a modest beginning in the year 1954. The advent
Vc= Disruptive critical voltage of thyristor valve and relater technological improvements over

141
 2013 International Conference on Power, Energy and Control (ICPEC)
the last 18 years has been responsible for the acceleration of
the growth of HVDC technology is still undergoing many
changes due to continuing innovations directed at improving
reliability and reducing cost of converter stations. The hottest
expansion of multi-terminal system operation has augmented
the scope of application of HVDC systems. However, the
growth in the knowledge on HVDC technology remains
Fig. 2 Cost vs. distance curved of HVDC over HVAC
limited.
AC tends to be more economical than DC for distance less than
When the number and size of DC system are small, it was
break even distance and costlier for longer distances. The break
common to mull over HVDC power transmission as too
even distance can vary from 500 to 800 km in overhead power
specialized and fit only to be taken up by the manufacturers
lines depending on the per unit line costs.
and consultants. With the escalation of HVDC systems there is
now a bigger alertness among engineers from the power XIII. TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE
utilities, regarding the potential of DC transmission from the
point of view of dealings with AC systems. Some of these The DC transmission has some positive facets which are
exchanges are advantageous, while others may pose problems lacking in AC transmission. These are largely due to the
unless investigated thoroughly during the design arenas and prompt controllability of power in DC lines through converter
solutions incorporated to succeed over the adverse effects. control.
While it is factual that the HVDC systems are to a certain The following are the advantages:
extent consistent and converter control tolerates elasticity in • Full control over power transmitted.
the method of maneuvers. • The ability to enhance transient and dynamic stability in
association AC networks.
XI. COMPARISONS OF AC & DC TRANSMISSION • Fast control to limit fault currents in DC lines. These make it
feasible to avoid DC breakers in two terminal DC links.
The comparative merits of two modes of transmission (AC &
In addition, the DC transmission overcomes some of the
DC) which have to to be considered by a classification
problems of AC transmission. These are described further:
conniver are based on the following factors:
• Economics of transmission XIV. VOLTAGE & POWER CONTROL
• Technical performance
The voltage control in AC lines is complicated by the line
• Reliability
charging and inductive voltage drops. The voltage profile in an
XII. ECONOMICS OF POWER TRANSMISSION AC line is relatively flat only for the fixed level of power
transfer corresponding to surge impedance loading (SIL). The
The cost of transmission line includes the investment and
voltage profile varies with the line loading. For the constant
operational costs. The investment includes costs of right of
voltage at the line terminals, the mid point voltages reduced for
way (ROW), transmission towers, conductors, insulators and
the line loading higher then SIL and increase for loading less
terminal equipment. The operational costs take account of
than SIL. This is shown in figure followed: The maintenance
mainly the cost of losses. The characteristics of the insulators
of constant voltages at the two ends requires reactive power
vary the type of voltage applied. For simplicity, if it is assumed
control from inductive to capacitive as the line loading is
that the insulator characteristics are similar for AC & DC and it
increased. The reactive power requirements increase with the
depend on the peak level of the voltage applied with the
increase in the line lengths. Although DC converter stations
respect to the ground. Then it can be publicized that for lines
require reactive power related to the line loadings, the line
designed with the same insulation level, a DC line carry as
itself does not involve reactive power. The steady state
much power with two conductors (with positive and negative
charging currents in AC lines pose serious problems in cables
polarities with respect to ground) as an AC line with three
this puts the break even distance for the cable transmission
conductors for the same size. This implies that for a given
around 40 km.
power stage DC line requires less ROW, simpler and cheaper
towers and reduced conductor and insulation costs. The power
losses are also reduced with DC as there are only two
conductors. The absence of skin effect with DC is also
beneficial in reducing power losses marginally. The dielectric
losses in case of power cables is also very less for DC
transmission. The corona effects tend to be less noteworthy on Fig. 3 HVDC Converter Topology
DC conductors than for AC and this also leads to the option of
3 3
monetary size of the conductors with DC transmission. The Udr = Vm cos (α ) -V 2 (12)
other factors that manipulate the line cost are the cost of π
reparation and terminal equipments. DC lines do not entail 3 3
compensation but the workstation equipment costs are V2 = Vm (cosα − cos(α + μ )) (13)
2π
increased due to the presence of the power converter and filters

142
 2013 International Conference on Power, Energy and Control (ICPEC)
With consideration of source inductance. Where, α and μ is
the firing and overlapping angle respectively by which Udr> Udi
is to be controlled for power flow. Fig.3 shows the various
electrical angles which define the operation of converter
bridges. These angles are measured on the three phase valve
side voltages and are based upon steady state conditions with a
harmonic free and idealized three phase commutation voltage.
They apply to both inverters and rectifiers. Delay angle α. The
time expressed in electrical angular measure from the zero
crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating voltage to the
starting instant of forward current conduction. This angle is
controlled by the gate firing pulse and if less than 90 degrees,
the converter bridge is a rectifier and if greater than 90 degrees,
it is an inverter. This angle is often referred to as the firing
angle. Advance angle β. The time expressed in electrical
angular measure from the starting instant of forward current
conduction to the next zero crossing of the idealized sinusoidal
commutating voltage. The angle of advance β is related in
degrees to the angle of delay α by the following equation
β=180− α (14)
It is useful to express the commutation reactance of a 6
pulse converter bridge in per-unit of the converter transformer
rating SN as follows
SN = √2 UVN IdN (15)
Where, IdN is the rated direct current and UVN is the rated
phase-to-phase voltage on the valve or secondary side of the
converter transformer. Usually the DC converter bridge power
rating is known from its rated DC current IdN and rated DC
voltage UdN. The valve and converter bridge design is very
dependent upon the commutation reactance XC and so
consequently its value is established and known. In modern
HVDC converter bridges it is usually in the range 0.1<XC<0.15
in per unit where 1.0 per unit is (UVN) 2/SN ohms. Overlap
angle μ. The duration of commutation between two converter
valve arms expressed in electrical angular measure. Extinction
angle γ. The time expressed in electrical angular measure from
the end of current conduction to the next zero crossing of the
idealized sinusoidal commutating voltage. γ depends on the
angle of advance β and the angle of overlap μ and is
determined by the relation
γ=β-μ (16)
A reasonably good ballpark figure for the power factor of a
converter bridge at the AC commutating bus is given by the
following expression for a rectifier. Note that the delay angle
α is usually known or determined. For example, the standard
steady state range of delay angle for a rectifier may be 10o <
α < 18o and the lowest normal operating power factor (P.f) will
be when α = 18o
⎛ I ⎞
P.f = cos(θ ) = cos(α ) − 0.5X C ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟ (17)
⎝ I dN ⎠
Power Factor at inverter side given as:
⎛ I ⎞
P.f = cos(θ ) = cos(λ ) − 0.5X C ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟ (18)
⎝ I dN ⎠
Where Id is the DC load current and IdN is rated DC current
and θ is the power factor angle. For the inverter, the normal
rated extinction angle is established in the converter bridge
design, usually at γ = 18o. Ignoring the losses in the converter
bridge, the power flowing through the bridge
Pd =IdUd (19)
Ud is the operating direct voltage across the bridge where Id is
the operating DC through the converter bridge as shown Fig. 3
XV. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF THE POWER CONVERTER
Fig. 4 Simulated waveforms of the Rectifier side
The figure, Fig. 4 depicts the commutation voltage at the input
side and output voltage of the control rectifier with good
voltage profile where X-axis is voltage and Y-axis is time in
millisecond.
Fig. 5 Simulated waveforms of the Converter side
The figures, Fig. 5 depicts the commutation voltage at the
inverter side with lesser harmonics, better power factor and
excellent voltage profile where X-axis is voltage and Y-axis is
time in millisecond.
XVI. RELIABILITY OF HVDC
The reliability of DC transmission systems is quite good and
comparable to that of AC systems. An exhaustive record of
existing HVDC links in the world is available from which the
reliability statistics can be computed. It must be remembered
that the performance of the thyristor valves is much more
reliable than mercury arc valves and further development in
devices control and protection is likely to perk up the
trustworthiness level for example the development of direct
light triggered (LTT) is expected to perk up reliability because
of the eradication of the high voltage pulse transformers and
auxiliary supplies for turning on the device. Both energy
accessibility and transient reliability of existing DC systems
with thyristor valves or high power switches is 90% or more.
XVII. HUGE APPLICATIONS OF DC TRANSMISSION
The detailed evaluation of AC & DC transmission in terms of
economics and technical performance leads to the following
areas of application for DC transmission.
• Long distance bulk power transmission.
• Subversive or underwater cables.
• Asynchronous interconnections of AC systems operating at
different frequencies or where independent control of systems
is desired.
143
 2013 International Conference on Power, Energy and Control (ICPEC)
• Control and stabilization of power flows in AC ties in an [5] High Voltage Direct Current Transmission Systems Technology Review
Paper. R. Ruderval, J.P. Charpentier, R. Sharma. Energy Week 2000,
integrated power system. Washington D.C., USA. March 2000.
[6] Economic Assessment of HVDC Links. Cigré Working Group 14.20.
XVIII. WEAKNESS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION June 2001.
[7] Performance and Economic Comparisons between Point-to-Point HVDC
The extent of application of DC transmission is limited by the Transmission and Hybrid Back-to-Back HVDC/AC Transmission. A.E.
following factors: Hammad, W.F. Long. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, No.
• The intricacy of breaking DC currents which results in high 2, April
expense of DC breakers. 1990.
[8] Role of HVDC Transmission in Future Energy Development.
• Inability to use transformers to change the voltage levels. T.J.Hammons, D. Woodford, J. Loughtan, M. Chamia, J. Donahoe, D.
• High cost of conversion equipment. Povh, B.Bisewski, W. Long. IEEE Power Engineering Review, February
• Generation of harmonics which call for AC & DC power 2000
[9] HVDC – A Major option for the electricity networks of the 21st century.
filters, adding to the cost of converter stations.
[10] M. Chamia. IEEE WPM 1999 – Panel Session, ‘The Role of HVDC
• Soaring Complexity of power control Transmission in the 21st Century’.
[11] Supply to Rapidly Growing Cities and Areas. F.S. Correa, L.R. Wilhelm
XIX. RESULT son, J.F. Allaire. Cigré Symposium, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, September
1999.
[12] Power Semiconductors in Transmission and Distribution Applications.
[13] R. Chokhawala, B. Danielsson, L.Ängquist. Proceedings of 2001
InternationalSy mposium on Power Semiconductors Devices and Ics,
Osaka.
[14] Commutation Failures in HVDC Transmission Systems. C.V. Thio, J.B.
[15] High-Voltage DC transmission – a power electronics workhouse. N.G.
Hingorani. IEEE Spectrum, April 1996.The merits of HVDC
underground power transmission for metropolitan

Fig. 6 Cost of different type of works

Fig. 7 Cost of different type of works

The above result is found turmoil data album and software

simulation and statistical base.
XX. CONCLUSION
Hi-tech encroachment will result in enhanced operating
characteristics, reduced complexity and smaller area
requirements for potential HVDC converter stations with
reduced cost, eco friendly power transmission, high reliability,
stout stability and high efficiency. Save energy and save nation
REFERENCES
[1] Summary of Impacts of the New Guidelines of the International
Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection on Power System
Operation. International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
Protection (INIRP). Hidro-Quebec. 1999.
[2] High Power Electronics HVDC and SVC. Åke Ekström. Compendium.
Kungl Tekniska Högskolan. June 1990.
[3] Power System Stability and Control. Prabha Kundur. Electric Power
Research Institute. Power Engineering Series. 1994
[4] Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers. Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne
Beaty. Fourteenth Edition.

144